Interpretation quantum mechanics is an attempt to explain how concepts in quantum mechanics fit reality. Although quantum mechanics has performed rigorous and meticulous experimental testing, many of these experiments are open to different interpretations. There are a number of different schools of thought, different as to whether quantum mechanics can be understood as deterministic, in which the elements of quantum mechanics can be considered "real", and other things.
This question is of great interest to philosophers of physics, as physicists continue to show a strong interest in the subject. They usually consider the interpretation of quantum mechanics as an interpretation of the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, determining the physical meaning of the mathematical entities of theory.
Video Interpretations of quantum mechanics
Sejarah interpretasi
The definition of the term quantum theory, such as wave function and matrix mechanics , develops through many stages. For example, Erwin SchrÃÆ'¶dinger initially saw the electron wave function when its load density was tarnished across the plane, while Max Born reinterpreted the absolute squared value of the wave function as the electron probability density distributed across the plane.
Although Copenhagen's interpretation was originally most popular, quantum decoherence has gained popularity. Thus the interpretation of many worlds has gained acceptance. In addition, the rigid formalist position, the evasive interpretation, has been challenged by proposals for counterfeit experiments that may one day differentiate between interpretations, such as by measuring awareness of AI or through quantum computing.
As a rough guide to the development of the general view during the 1990s to the 2000s, consider the "snapshot" opinions collected in the poll by Schlosshauer et al. at the conference "Quantum Physics and Natural Reality" 2011 July 2011. The authors also referred to an informal poll conducted by Max Tegmark at the conference "Fundamental Problems in Quantum Theory" in August 1997. The main conclusion of the authors is that "Copenhagen's interpretation is still ruling ", received the most votes in their polls (42%), in addition to the increasing importance of the notation of many world interpretations:
- "The Copenhagen interpretation is still in power here, especially if we integrate it with intellectual descent such as information-based interpretation and Quantum Bayesian interpretation.In the Tegmark poll, Everett's interpretation received 17% of the vote, which is similar to the number of votes (18% ) in our poll. "
It should be noted that only Cramer's transactional interpretation, published in 1986, provides the physical basis for Max Born's assertion that the absolute squared function of the wave is the probability density.
Maps Interpretations of quantum mechanics
Nature of interpretation
More or less, all interpretations of quantum mechanics have two qualities:
- They interpret formalism - a set of equations and principles to generate predictions through initial state input
- They interpret phenomenology - a set of observations, including those obtained from empirical and informally obtained research, such as human experience of a strict world
Two qualities vary between interpretations:
- Ontology - claims about what things, like categories and entities, exist in the world
- Epistemology - claims about the possibilities, scope, and means to the relevant knowledge in the world
In the philosophy of science, the distinction of knowledge versus reality is called epistemic versus ontic . The general law is episodes of order (epistemic), while causal mechanisms may be set of the results (ontic). A phenomenon can accept either ontical or epistemic interpretations. For example, indeterminism can be attributed to the limitations of human perception and perception (epistemic), or can be explained as real as there may be encoded in the universe (ontic). Confusing epistemic with ontic, as if one assumes that general law actually "governs" results - and that regularity statement has the role of causal mechanism - is a category error.
In a broad sense, scientific theory can be seen as offering scientific realism - roughly the correct description or explanation of the natural world - or perhaps perceived with antirealism. Realist attitudes seek epistemic and ontic, while anti-capitalist attitudes seek epistemic but not ontical. In the first half of the 20th century, antirealism was primarily a logical positivism, which sought to put aside the unobservable aspects of reality from scientific theory.
Since the 1950s, anti-military is simpler, usually instrumentalist, allowing conversations about aspects that can not be observed, but ultimately discarding the question of realism and proposing scientific theory as a tool to help humans make predictions. , not to achieve a metaphysical understanding of the world. The instrumentalist view was carried on by the famous quotation David Mermin, "Silent and counting", often misinterpreted to Richard Feynman.
Another approach to solving conceptual problems introduced new mathematical formalism, and proposed alternative theories with their interpretations. An example is the Bohmian mechanics, whose empirical equivalence with three standard formalisms - Schrö¶dinger wave mechanics, Heisenberg matrix mechanics, and Feynman's integral formalism - have been demonstrated.
Challenges for interpretation
- Abstract, the mathematical nature of quantum field theory: the mathematical structure of quantum mechanics abstractly mathematically without a clear interpretation of its quantity.
- The existence of processes that appear to be indeterministic and irreversible: in classical field theory, physical properties in specific locations in the field are easily obtained. In most mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics, measurement is given a special role in theory, since this is the only process that can lead to irregular and irreversible state evolution.
- The role of the observer in determining the outcome: The Copenhagen interpretation implies that the wave function is a calculating device, and represents reality only immediately after measurement, probably by observers; The everettian interpretation states that all possibilities can become real, and that the process of type-measurement interaction leads to an effective branching process.
- The classically unexpected correlation between a remote object: an entangled quantum system, as depicted in the EPR paradox, obeys statistics that appear to violate local causal principles.
- The conformity of the proposed description: complementarity states that there is no classical set of physical concepts that can simultaneously refer to all properties of a quantum system. For example, wave descriptions of A and particulate descriptions B can each represent the quantum system S , but not simultaneously. This implies the composition of the physical properties of S does not obey the classical propositional logic rules when using propositional connectors (see "Quantum logic"). Like contextuality, "the origin of complementarity lies in non-commutative operators" that describe quantum objects (OmnÃÆ'¨s 1999).
- Anomalies are increasing rapidly, far beyond the current human calculation capacity, because the size of the system increases: because quantum system status space is exponential in the number of subsystems, it is difficult to get a classical approach.
- System contextual behavior locally: Quantum contextual indicates that the classical intuition in which the properties of the system holds the definite values, regardless of the way they are measured, fails even for the local system. Also, physical principles such as Leibnitz's principle of identity indiscernibles are no longer valid in the quantum domain, indicating that most classical intuitions may be wrong about the quantum world.
Summary of general interpretations of quantum mechanics
Classification adopted by Einstein
An interpretation (ie, a formal mathematical explanation of quantum mechanics of mathematics) can be characterized by his treatment of certain matters dealt with by Einstein, such as:
- Realism
- Tools
- Local realism
- Determinism
To explain these properties, we need to be more explicit about the type of image provided by the interpretation. For that we will regard interpretation as the correspondence between the elements of mathematical formalism M and the elements of the interpretation structure I , where:
- The mathematical formalism M consists of the Hilbert space engine of the vector, the self-adjoint operator acting on the vector space, the time unity of dependence of ket-vector, and measurement operations. In this context the measurement operation is a transformation that converts the vector into a probability distribution (for the formalization of this concept see quantum operations).
- The I Interpretation structure includes status, transitional interstate, measurement operation, and possibly information about the spatial extension of these elements. The measurement operation refers to an operation that returns a value and can result in a system status change. Spatial information will be exhibited by the countries represented as a function in the configuration space. Transitions may be non-deterministic or probabilistic or there may be many situations.
An important aspect of interpretation is whether the I elements are considered to be physically real. Therefore the instrumentalist view of bare quantum mechanics described in the previous section is not an interpretation at all, since there is no claim about elements of physical reality.
The use of current realism and completeness comes from a 1935 paper in which Einstein and others propose the EPR paradox. In the paper the author proposes the concept of the elements of reality and the completeness of the physical theory . They characterize the element of reality as a quantity whose value can be predicted with certainty before measuring or disturbing it, and defining complete physical theory as one in which every element of physical reality is taken into account by theory. In the view of semantic interpretation, the interpretation is complete if every element of the interpretive structure exists in mathematics. Realism is also the property of each mathematical element; element is real if it corresponds to something in the structure of interpretation. For example, in some interpretations of quantum mechanics (such as the interpretation of many worlds) the vector of ket associated with the state of the system is said to correspond to elements of physical reality, while in other interpretations it is not.
Determinism is a property that characterizes the changing circumstances as time passes, ie that the state of the instantaneous future is a function of the state in the present (see evolution of time). It may not always be clear whether a particular interpretation is deterministic or not, since there may not be a clear choice of a time parameter. In addition, the given theory may have two interpretations, one of which is deterministic and the other is not.
Local realism has two aspects:
- The value returned by the measurement matches the value of some functions in the status space. In other words, that value is an element of reality;
- The measurement effect has a propagation speed that does not exceed the universal limit (eg the speed of light). For this to make sense, the measurement operation in the interpretive structure should be localized.
The precise formulation of local realism in terms of local hidden variable theory was proposed by John Bell.
Bell's theorem, combined with experimental testing, limits the kinds of properties that quantum theory can possess, the main implication being that quantum mechanics can not meet both the principle of locality and counterfactual precision.
It should be noted that regardless of Einstein's concerns about interpretation problems, Dirac and other quantum figures embrace the technical advancements of the new theory while devoting little or no attention to aspects of interpretation.
Copenhagen interpretation
The Copenhagen interpretation is a "standard" interpretation of quantum mechanics formulated by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg when collaborating in Copenhagen around 1927. Bohr and Heisenberg expanded the probabilistic interpretation of the wave function originally proposed by Max Born. The Copenhagen interpretation rejected questions such as "where did the particle before me measure its position?" as meaningless. The random measurement process takes one of the many possibilities made possible by the state wave function in a manner consistent with well-defined probabilities assigned to each possible state. According to the interpretation, the interaction of the external observer or apparatus against the quantum system is the cause of the collapse of the wave function, so according to Paul Davies, "reality in observation, not in electrons". In general, after measurement (click the Geiger counter or track in the spark or bubble spaces) it ceases to be relevant unless subsequent experimental observations can be made.
Many worlds
The interpretation of many worlds is an interpretation of quantum mechanics in which the universal wave function obeys the same deterministic, reversible law at all times; in particular there is no indeterministic and irreversible collapse associated with measurement. The phenomenon associated with measurement is claimed by decoherence, which occurs when states interact with an enabling environment, repeatedly "dividing" the universe into an unobserved alternate history - effectively a different universe in a larger multiverse.
Consistent history
Consistent historical interpretations generalize conventional Copenhagen interpretations and try to provide a natural interpretation of quantum cosmology. This theory is based on a consistency criterion that allows the history of the system to be described so that the probability for each history obeys the additional rules of classical probabilities. This is claimed to be consistent with the Schrödinger equation.
According to this interpretation, the purpose of quantum-mechanical theory is to predict the relative probabilities of alternative historical histories (eg, of a particle).
Interpretation of an ensemble, or statistical interpretation
Interpretation of an ensemble, also called a statistical interpretation, can be seen as a minimalist interpretation. That is, it claims to make the least assumptions related to standard math. Full statistical interpretation of Born is required. The interpretation states that the wave function does not apply to individual systems - for example, a particle - but an abstract quantity of statistics that only applies to ensembles (lots) of systems or particles prepared equally. Perhaps the most prominent supporter of such an interpretation is Einstein:
The attempt to understand the quantum theoretical description as a complete description of the individual system leads to an unnatural theoretical interpretation, which becomes unnecessary immediately if one accepts the interpretation that the description refers to the ensemble of the system and not the individual system.
Current supporters of ensemble interpretation are Leslie E. Ballentine, professor at Simon Fraser University, author of undergraduate textbooks Quantum Mechanics, Modern Developments . An experiment illustrating the ensemble interpretation is provided in the Akira Tonomura video clip 1. This is evident from this double slit experiment with an individual electron ensemble which, since the quantum mechanical wave function (completely squared) illustrates the completed > interference pattern, it should describe the ensemble. The new version of the ensemble interpretation that depends on the reformulation of the theory is likely to be introduced by Raed Shaiia.
The De Broglie-Bohm Theory
The theory of de Broglie-Bohm quantum mechanics was a theory by Louis de Broglie and extended later by David Bohm to include measurements. Particles, which always have a position, are guided by a wave function. The waves change according to the Schrödinger wave equation, and the wave function never collapses. This theory takes place in a space of time, non-locality, and is deterministic. The positioning and particle velocity are simultaneously subject to the usual limitations of uncertainty principle. This theory is considered a theory of hidden variables, and by embracing non-locality it meets the inequalities of Bell. The measurement problem is solved, because the particles have a definite position at all times. Collapse is described as phenomenologically.
Relational quantum mechanics
The important idea behind relational quantum mechanics, following the precedent of special relativity, is that different observers can give different reports from the same series of events: for example, for one observer at a given point in time, a system may be in one, "collapsed" eigenstate, while for other observers at the same time, perhaps in the superposition of two or more countries. Consequently, if quantum mechanics becomes a complete theory, relational quantum mechanics holds that the notion of "state" describes not the observed system itself, but the relationship, or correlation, between the system and its observer (s). The vector state of conventional quantum mechanics is a description of the correlation of several degrees of freedom to the observer, with respect to the observed system. However, this is held by relational quantum mechanics which is applicable to all physical objects, whether they are conscious or macroscopic. Each "measurement event" is seen only as a casual physical interaction, forming a sort of correlation discussed above. So the physical content of the theory must not be with the object itself, but the relationship between them.
An independent relational approach to quantum mechanics is developed in analogy with David Bohm's explanation of special relativity, where detection events are regarded as building relationships between quantized fields and detectors. The inherent ambiguity associated with applying Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is then avoided.
Transactional interpretation
The transomational interpretation of quantum mechanics (TIQM) by John G. Cramer is an interpretation of quantum mechanics inspired by the Wheeler-Feynman absorbent theory. It describes the collapse of a wave function as a result of a symmetrical time-transaction between the probable wave from the source to the receiver (the wave function) and the probable wave from the receiver to the source (the complex conjugate of the wave function). Because the waves are likely to collapse by interaction with recipients, consciousness plays no role in theory, eliminating the paradox of SchrÃÆ'¶dinger cats. This interpretation of quantum mechanics is unique in that it not only views the wave function as a real entity, but the complex conjugate of the wave function, which appears in the Born rule to calculate the expected value for observable, is also real.
Stochastic Mechanics
The completely classical derivation and interpretation of the Schrödinger wave equation by analogy to Brownian motion was suggested by Princeton University professor in 1966. Similar considerations have been published, for example by R. FÃÆ'¼rth (1933), I. FÃÆ'Â © nyes (1952) , and Walter Weizel (1953), and referenced in Nelson's paper. More recent work on stochastic interpretation has been done by M. Pavon. An alternative stochastic interpretation was developed by Roumen Tsekov.
The theory of goal collapse
The theory of goal collapse differs from the Copenhagen interpretation in regard to both the wave function and the collapse process as an ontological goal. In objective theory, collapse occurs randomly ("spontaneous localization"), or when some physical threshold is reached, with the observer having no special role. Thus, they are realistic, indeterministic, no-hidden-variables. The collapse mechanism is not determined by standard quantum mechanics, which needs to be extended if this approach is correct, meaning that the Fall of Purposes is more theoretical than interpretation. Examples include the Ghirardi-Rimini-Weber theory and Penrose's interpretation. Another example is the deterministic variant of the theory of objective collapse
In his treatise of The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, John von Neumann analyzed in depth the so-called measurement problem. He concludes that the entire physical universe can be made subject to the Schrödinger equation (universal wave function). He also explains how measurements can lead to the collapse of wave functions. This point of view is clearly expanded by Eugene Wigner, who argues that the consciousness of human experimentation (or even dog awareness) is crucial to collapse, but he then abandons this interpretation.
Variations in consciousness lead to the interpretation of collapse include:
- Subjective reduction study
- This principle, the consciousness that leads to collapse, is the point of intersection between quantum mechanics and the mind/body problem; and researchers work to detect conscious events that correlate with physical events that, according to quantum theory, must involve the collapse of wave functions; but, so far, the results can not be inferred.
- Participatory anthropological principles (PAP)
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- The participatory anthropological principle of John Archibald Wheeler says that consciousness plays several roles in realizing the universe.
Other physicists have elaborated on the variations in their own consciousness that led to the growth of interpretation of the collapse; including:
- Henry P. Stapp ( Mindful Universe: Quantum Mechanics and Participating Observer )
- Bruce Rosenblum and Fred Kuttner ( Quantum Enigma: Physics Encounters Consciousness )
- Amit Goswami ( The Self-Aware Universe )
Many thoughts
The multiple-mind interpretation of quantum mechanics extends the interpretation of many worlds by proposing that the distinction between the world should be made at the level of the mind of an individual observer.
Quantum logic
Quantum logic can be regarded as a kind of propositional logic suitable for understanding the apparent anomalies of quantum measurements, especially with respect to the composition of measurement operations of complementary variables. The area of ​​this research and its name comes from a 1936 paper by Garrett Birkhoff and John von Neumann, who sought to reconcile some of the apparent inconsistencies of classical boolean logic with facts relating to measurement and observation in quantum mechanics.
Quantum information theory
This quantum informative approach has attracted increasing support. They are subdivided into two types
- Ontology information, such as J. A. Wheeler "is from bit". These approaches have been described as the rise of immaterialism
- The interpretation in which quantum mechanics is said to depict the knowledge of the observer of the world, rather than the world itself. This approach has some similarities to Bohr's thinking. Collapse (also known as reduction) is often interpreted as an observer who obtains information from measurement, not as an objective event. This approach has been assessed similarly to instrumentalism.
The state is not the objective property of the individual system but the information, derived from the knowledge of how the system is prepared, which can be used to make predictions about future measurements.... A quantum mechanical state becomes a summary of the observer's information about the changes in the physical system of an individual both by dynamic law, and whenever the observer obtains new information about the system through the measurement process. The existence of two laws for the evolution of the state vectors... becomes problematic only if it is believed that the state vector is the objective property of the system... "Wavepacket reduction" does occur in the observer's consciousness, not because of the unique physical processes that occur there, state is the observer construct and not the objective property of the physical system
Capital interpretation of quantum theory
The interpretation of the capital of quantum mechanics was first conceived in 1972 by B. van Fraassen, in his paper "The formal approach to the philosophy of science." However, the term is now used to describe a larger set of models that grew out of this approach. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy outlines several versions:
- The Copenhagen variant
- Kochen-Dieks-Healey Interpretation
- Motivating Early Capital Interpretation, based on the works of R. Clifton, M. Dickson, and J. Bub.
Time-symmetric theory
Several theories have been proposed that modify the equations of quantum mechanics to be symmetric with respect to time reversal. (For example see Wheeler-Feynman's time-symmetric theory). It creates retrocausal: events in the future can affect the past, just as events in the past can affect the future. In these theories, a single measurement can not fully determine the state of a system (making them a kind of hidden variable theory), but considering the two measurements performed at different times, it is possible to calculate the exact state of the system at all the middle time.. The collapse of the wave function is therefore not a physical change to the system, only a change in our knowledge of it because of the second measurement. Similarly, they explain attachment as not a true physical state but only an illusion created by ignoring retrocausality. The point at which the two particles appear to be "entangled" is simply the point at which each particle is affected by events occurring in other particles in the future.
Not all symmetrical causal supporters of time support the modification of the dynamics of the unity of standard quantum mechanics. Thus the prominent exponent of a two-state vector formalism, Lev Vaidman, highlights how well a two-state vector formalism corresponds to the interpretation of many of Hugh Everett's worlds.
Sharing space-time theory
The BST theory resembles many world interpretations; However, "the main difference is that BST interpretations take a branching of history into a topological feature of the set of events with their causal relations... rather than the consequences of the separate evolution of the various vector components of the state." In MWI, it is a branched wave function, whereas BST, the space-time topology itself is forked. BST has applications for Bell's theorem, quantum calculations and quantum gravity. It also has some resemblance to the theory of hidden variables and ensemble interpretation: the particles in the BST have some well-defined trajectories at the microscopic level. It can only be treated stochastic at a coarse-grained level, in line with ensemble interpretation.
Other interpretations
As well as the main interpretation discussed above, a number of other interpretations have been proposed that have not made a significant scientific impact for any reason. These range from proposals by mainstream physicists to more hidden ideas of quantum mysticism.
Comparison of interpretation
The most common interpretations are summarized in the table below. The values ​​shown in the table cells are not without controversy, because the exact meaning of some of the concepts involved is unclear and, in fact, itself becomes the center of controversy surrounding the interpretation given. For other tables that compare the interpretation of quantum theory, see references.
There is no experimental evidence that distinguishes this interpretation. So far, physical theory stands, and is consistent with itself and with reality; difficulties only arise when one tries to "interpret" the theory. However, designing experiments that will test different interpretations is the subject of active research.
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