The history of alternative medicine refers to the history of a diverse group of medical practices that were collectively promoted as an "alternative medicine" that began in the 1970s, to a collection of individual histories of the group's members, or to the history of western medical practice labeled "irregular practices" by western medical institutions. This includes a history of complementary medicine and integrative medicine. "Alternative medicine" is a loosely defined set of products, practices, and theories that are perceived by the user as having medicinal healing effects, but not from evidence gathered using the scientific method, not part of biomedicine. , or contrary to established scientific or scientific evidence. "Biomedicine" is a part of medical science that applies the principles of anatomy, physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, and other natural sciences to clinical practice, using scientific methods to establish the effectiveness of the practice.
Much of what is now categorized as an alternative treatment developed as an independent and complete medical system, developed well before biomedicine and the use of scientific methods, and developed in relatively isolated regions of the world where there is little or no medical contact with western scientific medicine, or with their respective systems. Examples are Traditional Chinese medicine and Indian Ayurvedic medicine. Other alternative treatment practices, such as homeopathy, were developed in Western Europe and contrary to western medicine, during western medicine based on unscientific theories that were dogmatically imposed by western religious authorities. Homeopathy was developed before the invention of basic chemical principles, which proved homeopathic medicine to contain anything but water. But homeopathy, with its water-based treatment, is harmless compared to the unscientific and dangerous orthodox western medicine practiced at the time, which included the use of toxins and blood draining, often resulting in permanent damage or death. Other alternative practices such as chiropractic and osteopathic manipulative drugs, developed in the United States at a time when western medicine began to incorporate scientific methods and theories, but the biomedical model has not been entirely dominant. Practices such as chiropractic and osteopathic, each considered irregular by medical institutions, are also opposed to each other, both rhetorically and politically with licensing legislation. Osteopathic practitioners add biomedical courses and training to their licenses, and licensed Ophthalmic Doctors of Medicine begin to reduce the use of non-scientific origin of the field, and without original practice and theory, is now considered to be the same as biomedical.
Until the 1970s, western practitioners who were not part of medical institutions were referred to "irregular practitioners", and dismissed by medical institutions as unscientific or shamanic. Irregular practices become increasingly marginalized as shamanism and deception, as western medicine increasingly incorporates scientific methods and discoveries, and has an appropriate increase in the success of its treatment. In the 1970s, irregular practices were grouped with traditional practices of non-Western cultures and with other unproven or unproven practices that were not part of biomedicine, with groups promoted as "alternative medicine". Following the counter-cultural movement of the 1960s, misleading marketing campaigns that promote "alternative medicine" as an effective "alternative" to biomedicine, and by changing social attitudes about not using chemicals, challenging formation and any authority, the same size. values ​​and other cultural beliefs and practices through cultural relativism, adding postmodernism and deconstructivism to ways of thinking about science and its shortcomings, and with increasing frustration and discouragement by patients about the limitations and side effects of science-based drugs, the use of alternative medic west began to rise, then explosive growth began in the 1990s, when senior-level political figures began promoting alternative medicine, and began diverting government medical research funds into alternative, complementary, and integrative medicine research.
Video History of alternative medicine
Alternative medicine
The concept of alternative medicine is problematic because it can not exist autonomously as an object of study in itself but must always be defined in relation to non-static and temporary medical orthodoxy. It also divides the drug into two realms, a mainstream and medical periphery, which, in the orthodoxy of orthodoxy, presents difficulties in constructing a historical analysis that does not depend on the often biased and polemical views of ordinary medical practitioners. The description of non-conventional medicine as an alternative reinforces both the marginality and centrality of official drugs. Although more neutral than degrading designations or promotions such as "shamanism" or "natural cures", such cognate terms as "unconventional," "heterodox," "unofficial," "irregular", "folk", "popular", "marginal "" complementary, "" integrative "or" unorthodox "defines their objects against conventional biomedical standards, requiring point of view and special judgments, often carrying moral nuances, and can be inaccurate. Conventional medical practitioners in the West since the nineteenth century have used some of these and similar terms as a means of defining the limits of "legitimate" drugs, marking the division between the scientific and the unlawful. The definition of mainstream medicine, commonly understood to refer to licensed treatment systems that enjoy state protection and law within jurisdictions, is also very specific to time and place. In countries like India and China traditional systems of medicine, in conjunction with Western biomedical science, can be considered conventional and mainstream. The shifting nature of these terms is underscored by recent attempts to demarcate between alternative treatments based on efficacy and safety and to combine those therapies with values ​​that are scientifically considered to be complementary drugs as compound additions to conventional practices. It will introduce a new line of division based on medical validity.
Maps History of alternative medicine
Before "fringe"
Prior to the training and practice of European medicine of the 19th century, it seemed self-regulated through various antique companies, guilds, or colleges. Among the regular practitioners, university trained doctors form a medical elite while provincial surgeons and pharmacists, who study their art through internships, make the lower ranks. In the Old French Regime, licenses for medical practitioners are provided by medical faculty from major universities, such as the Faculty of Medicine of Paris. Access is limited and successful candidates, among other requirements, must pass the exam and pay regular fees. In Austrian Imperial medical license is granted by the Universities of Prague and Vienna. Among German countries, top doctors are academically qualified and are usually attached to medical faculty associated with the royal palace. Theories and practices include the science of anatomy and that the blood circulates by the pumping heart, and contains some empirically obtained information about disease progression and about surgery, but are otherwise unscientific, and almost entirely ineffective and dangerous.
Beyond this formal medical structure there are many other medical practitioners, often called laskar, with various services and goods. The eighteenth-century medical market, the period often referred to as the "Golden Age of quackery", is a highly pluralistic period that has no clear and polarized division between "conventional" and "unconventional" medical practitioners. In many continental European legal solutions it serves to control at least the most egregious forms of "irregular" medical practice but the medical markets in Britain and America are under control through regulation. Quackery in the period before modern medical professionalization should not be considered equivalent to alternative medicine because those generally regarded as shamans instead of peripheral numbers by default or they do not always promote oppositional and alternative medical systems. Indeed, accusations of 'shamanism', which may accuse medical incompetence, greed or fraud, are flattened indiscriminately in various classes of medical practitioners, they are ordinary medical officers, such as hierarchical, corporate physician classes, surgeons and pharmacies in the UK. , or troopers like nostrum mongers, bonesetters and local wise women. Generally, however, shamanism is associated with growing medical entrepreneurship among ordinary and irregular practitioners in the provision of goods and services along with techniques related to advertising and self-promotion in the medical market. The features of the medical market supporters during the 18th century were the development of medical consumerism and the high level of strength and choice of patients in care selection, limited efficacy of available medical therapy, and the absence of applied medical and regulatory professionalization. market.
Medical professionalization
By the end of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, regular and irregular medical practitioners became more distinctly differentiated across Europe. In part, this is achieved through a state-approved medical regulatory process. The various types of regulatory medical markets made in Europe and the 19th century reflect the historical patterns of different country formation. When countries traditionally enjoy strong and centralized powers, as in the German states, it is easier for governments to take control of medical regulations. In countries that have used weaker central powers and adopted a free market model, as in Britain, governments are gradually taking greater control over medical regulation as part of improving the country's focus on public health issues. This process is significantly complicated in Britain by the long-standing survival of historical medical colleges. A similar process can be observed in America since the 1870s but this is facilitated by the absence of medical companies. Throughout the nineteenth century, however, most Western countries came together in the creation of a legally restricted and semi-protected medical market. It is at this point that the "official" drug, created in cooperation with the state and using the scientific rhetoric of legitimacy, emerges as a recognizable entity and that the concept of alternative medicine as a historical category becomes sustainable.
France provides perhaps one of the earliest examples of the emergence of state-approved medical orthodoxy - and hence also the conditions for the development of early alternative forms of medicine that can be traced to the end of the 18th century. In addition to the traditional French medical faculties and the complex hierarchy of practitioners in which they lead, the state increasingly supports new institutions, such as Decentralization  © Royale de MÃÆ' © ( Royal Society of Medicine) ) that received the royal charter in the year 1778, who played a role in overseeing the medical practice and sale of medical drugs. The system was radically altered during the early phases of the French Revolution when traditional faculty and new institutions under the royal sponsorship were removed and a completely unregulated medical market was created. This anarchist situation was reformed under the urgency of war when in 1793 the state adopted national control over medical education; under Napoleon in 1803 state-control extended over licensed medical practitioners. This latest reform introduces a new hierarchical division between practitioners in the creation of medical doctors from graduate doctors and surgeons, who are free to practice across the state, and lowly officiers de santà ©  © who receive fewer training , can only offer their services to the poor, and be limited to where they can practice. This national medical regulatory system under the control of the country, exported to Napoleon's conquest areas such as Italy, Rhineland, and the Netherlands, becomes paradigmatic in the West and in countries that adopt western medical systems. While offering state protection to a licensed physician and establishing a medical monopoly in principle, it does not remove competition from irregular practitioners.
19th century unconventional medicine
From the late 18th century and stronger than the mid-nineteenth century a number of non-conventionally developed medical systems in the West were proposing oppositional medical systems, criticizing orthodox medical practitioners, emphasizing patient-centredness, and offering substitutions for treatments offered by mainstream medical. Although both medical markets and practitioners did not regularly disappear during the nineteenth century, advocates of the alternative medical system differed greatly from entrepreneurs of the previous century in the avoidance of striking self-promotion and instead adopted a more serious and serious presentation. The relationship between medical orthodoxy and heterodoxy is complex, the two categories contain many variations, undergo substantial changes over the period, and the split between them is often blurred.
Many alternative ideas grew out of the Lebensreform movement, which emphasized the goodness of nature, the dangers to society, people, and nature caused by industrialization, the importance of the whole person, body and mind, the power of the sun, and the goodness of the "old way".
The various alternative medical systems developed during this period can be categorized according to the recommended form of treatment. These are: those who use spiritual or psychological therapies, such as hypnosis (mesmerism); nutrition therapy based on special diets, such as medical botany; drug and biological therapies such as homeopathy and hydrotherapy; and, manipulative physical therapy such as osteopathy and chiropractic massage. Unconventional drugs may define health in terms of the concept of balance and harmony or support the vitalistic doctrine of the body. Illness can be understood as the result of the increase of toxins and body impurities, the result of magical, spiritual, or supernatural causes, or arising from the blockage of energy in the body so that the healing action may be a transfer of energy from practitioner to patient.
Mesmerism
Mesmerism was a medical system proposed at the end of the 18th century by a trained physician in Vienna, Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815), for whom his name was. The basis of this doctrine is Mesmer's discovery of aetherial new fluid, animal magnetism, which, according to him, penetrates the universe and the body of all living things and the right balance is the basis for health and disease. Animal magnetism is just one of a series of fluids and postulated subtle substances, such as calories, phlogiston, magnetism, and electricity, which then paralyze the scientific literature. It also reflects Mesmer's doctoral thesis, De Planatarum Influxu ("About Planet Influence"), which has investigated the impact of the planet's gravitational effect on body tissues containing fluids. His focus on magnetism and magnetic therapy potential comes from his reading of Paracelsus, Athanasius Kircher and Johannes Baptista van Helmont. The immediate impulse for medical speculation, however, comes from patient care, Franzisca Oesterlin, who suffers episodic seizures and seizures that cause vomiting, fainting, temporary blindness and paralysis. His recovery consists of placing a magnet on his body that consistently produces episodes of convulsions and subsequent decline of symptoms. According to Mesmer, the logic of this drug shows that health depends on the uninterrupted flow of a suspected magnetic fluid and that poor health is the result of its blockage. The method of treatment is claimed to be able to resolve this by transferring directly the natural and natural animal's magnetism to its patient by touch or by transmitting this energy from a magnetic object.
In 1775 Mesmer's practice in Austria was developing and he published the text of Schrieben ÃÆ'¼ber die Magnetkur and einen auswÃÆ'¤rtigen Arzt which first described his thesis of animal magnetism. In 1778, however, he became involved in a scandal resulting from his treatment of a young, blind patient who was connected to a Vienna court and moved to Paris where he set up a medical salon, "The Society of Harmony", for the treatment of patients. Recruiting from a client base drawn largely from middle- and upper-middle-class women, Mesmer organized a group of sà © ances in his healthy salons that were physically dominated by large wood, lining up the tank, known as baquet , containing iron, glass and other materials magnetized by Mesmer and filled with "magnetic water". In this session the patient is asked to hold the metal rod coming from the tub acting as a reservoir for animal magnetism originating from Mesmer and his client. Mesmer, through the apparent strength of his will - is often aided by the intense gaze or the administration of his wand - will then direct this energy into the body of the afflicted patient trying to provoke one of the "crises" or trance-like circumstances; results which he believes are important for healing to occur. The patient's statement of healing ensures that Mesmer enjoyed great and modern success in Paris at the end of the eighteenth century where he caused something sensational and scandalous.
The popular caricature of mesmerism emphasizes the nature of erotic treatments such as spectacle: "Here the doctor in a lilac or purple coat, where the brightest flower has been painted by sewing, speaks most comfortably to his patient: his arm gently wraps it up, sustains it in his spasms, gently burning expresses his desire to comfort him ". Responding primarily to the sign of sexual inequality and political radicalism that inculcated this, the 178th Mesmerism submitted to the commission of inquiry by the scientific panel appointed by the kingdom of the prestigious Acadà © me de Mie in French  © dicine. The finding is that animal magnetism has no factual basis and that Mesmer's drug has been achieved through the power of suggestion. The report of the commission, if it undermines Mesmer's personal status and professional ambitions from faculty doctors who have adopted the practice of mesmer, do little to inhibit the diffusion of the doctrine of animal magnetism.
In England, mesmerism was championed by John Elliotson, Professor of Practical Medicine at University College London and founder and president of the London Phrenological Society. A prominent and progressive orthodox doctor, he was President of the Medico-Chirugical Society of London and an early adopter of stethoscopes in British medical practice. He was introduced to mesmerism in the summer of 1837 by French physicians and former Mesmer student Dupotet, who is credited as the most significant cross-channel influence on the development of mesmerism in Britain. Elliotson believes that animal magnetism provides a basis for mind consideration and will in terms of matter make it possible to study them as medical objects. Initially supported by The Lancet, a reformist medical journal, he sought to demonstrate the scientific nature of animal magnetism as a physiological process in a female-dominated charity under his care at University College Hospital. Worker class patients are preferred as experimental subjects to show the physical properties of mesmerism in the nervous system as, supposedly more animal and machine-like than their social superior, their personal characteristics are considered less likely to interfere with the experimental process. He attempted to reduce his subject to the status of mechanical automata claiming that he could, through the properties of animal magnetism and soothe the state of the induced consciousness, "play" their brains as if they were musical instruments.
Two Irish-born charity patients, the O'Key brothers' teenagers, emerged as vital to the increasingly popular and popular mesmeric treatment demonstration at Elliotson. Initially, his magnetic practice was used to treat the diagnosis along with women 'hysteria and epilepsy in controlling or limiting their episodes of seizures. By the fall of 1837 Elliotson had stopped treating O'Keys only as a suitable object for healing and instead attempted to mobilize them as a diagnostic tool. When in mesmeric entrancement countries in the O'Key brothers, due to the increased sensitivity of their nervous system and sensory equipment, it behaves as if they have the ability to see through solid objects, including the human body, and thus assist in medical diagnosis. Because their fame rivals Elliotson, however, O'Keys behaves less like a human diagnostic machine and becomes increasingly stubborn against medical authority and adapted to themselves the power to examine, diagnose, prescribe treatments and provide prognosis. The emergence of this threat to medical mastery in the form of a pair of working-class girls, teenagers without medical training raised general anxiety among medical institutions and weighed on Elliotson one of his early and influential supporters, a major supporter of medical reform, Thomas Wakley. Wakley, editor of The Lancet, originally hoped that Elliotson's scientific experiments with animal magnetism could further a medical reform agenda in strengthening professional authority through the production of scientific truth and, equally importantly in periods when power relationships between physicians and patients redefined, the patient's body is silent. Disturbed by the provocative screen of O'Key, Waduh convinced Elliotson to pursue his mesmeric practice to court in August 1838 before a jury of ten men in which he accused the gullible nuns and his gullible colleagues. After a series of complaints issued to the Medical Committee of the University Hospital University they chose to release O'Keys along with other mesmeric subjects at the hospital and Elliotson resigned in protest.
This setback, while excluding Elliotson from medical institutions, did not end his mesmeric career nor his mesmerism career in Britain. From 1842 he became a supporter of phreno-mesmerism - an approach that incorporated the principles of phrenology with animal magnetism and which led to a split within the Phrenological Society. The following year he founded, together with the physician and later President of the Society of Phrenology, William Collins Engledue, the principal journal on animal magnetism entitled The Zoist: Journal of Cerebral Physiology and Mesmerism and Their Applications for Human Welfare, fixed quarterly publications printed to a fifty-second edition in January 1856. The mesmeris community, often protected by people among the scientific and social elite founded in many major population centers in England from the 1840s onwards. Some fairly blessed societies, such as London, Bristol and Dublin, Ireland, support a mesmeris clinic with permanent mesmeris practitioners in their work. Due to the increasing competition of spiritualism and psychic research in the mid-1860s, this mesmer community health center was closed.
The 1840s in England also witnessed a magnetic flood that puts in a public event to pay viewers to show their craft. These mesmeric theaters, partly intended as a means of obtaining profitable private clients, serve as a public forum for debates between skeptics and believers, whether the show is genuine or fraudulent. To establish that the loss of sensation beneath the mesmeric trance is real, these mobile iris experts often use quite a hard method - including releasing firearms close to the subjects' ears, stabbing them with needles, putting acid on the skin and knives underneath. fingernails.
The performance of such mesmerism anesthesia qualities inspired some medical practitioners to try operations on subjects under a magnetic spell. In France, this first major operation had been tested, apparently successful, as early as 1828 during the mastectomy procedure. In the UK the first significant surgical procedure was performed on the patient when fascinated occurred in 1842 when James Wombell, a worker from Nottingham, had amputated his leg. After being fascinated for several days before an operation by a lawyer named William Topham, Wombell showed no sign of pain during the operation and reported afterwards that the operation was painless. This account is disputed by many people in medical companies who argue that Wombell has hidden the pain of amputation both during and after the procedure. Unaffected, in 1843 Elliotson continued to advocate for the use of animal magnetism in surgical surgery Many cases of Painless Surgery Surgery in Mesmeric Countries . This marked the start of a paranormal London campaign to gain a foothold for practice within British hospitals by convincing both doctors and the general public about the value of surgical mesmerism. Mesmer surgery enjoyed great success in the years 1842-1846 and colonial India emerged as a definite bulwark of practice; his success was disseminated in England through the Zoist and the publication in 1846 of Mesmerism in India and its Practical Application in Surgery and Medicine by James Esdaile, a Scottish surgeon with the East India Company and a major proponent of animal magnetism on the continent.
Although some surgeons and dentists have conducted nervous experiments with anesthetic materials in previous years, it was only in 1846 that the use of ether in surgery was popularized among orthodox medical practitioners. This is despite the fact that the effects of desensitis from widely available chemicals such as ether and nitrous oxide are generally known and have been part of the public and scientific display for half a century earlier.
The feature of spreading attraction in the New World is an ever-increasing association with spiritualism. In the 1830s mesmerism was progressing in the United States among such figures as the intellectual ancestor of the New Thought movement, Phineas Parkhurst Quimby, whose treatment incorporated verbal suggestions with touch. The most famous "Quimby's" disciple, Mary Baker Eddy, will continue to discover the "medico-religious hybrid", Christian Science, in the second half of the nineteenth century. In the 1840s, an American spiritualist, Andrew Jackson Davis, tried to combine animal magnetism with spiritual beliefs and postulated that the health of the body depended on an unobstructed "spirit" movement, conceived as a fluid substance, throughout the body. Like Quimby, Davis's healing practice involves the use of touch.
Osteopati dan manipulasi chiropraktik
Derived from the tradition of 'bone arrangement' and belief in the supernatural energy flow in the body (vitalism), both osteopathy and chiropractic developed in the US in the late 19th century. The British School of Osteopathy was founded in 1917 but it was 1960 before the first chiropractic college was founded in England. Chiropractic theories and methods (related to subluxation or small displacements of the spine and other joints) are incompatible with current orthodox knowledge of spinal biomechanics. In addition to teaching osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM) and theory, osteopathic colleges in the US are gradually coming to have the same courses and requirements as biomedical schools, where osteopathic doctors (ODs) who practice OMM are considered to practice conventional biomedicine at WE. The endorsement of the Osteopaths Act (1993) and the Chiropractors Act (1994), however, created for the first time autonomous legislation for two CAM therapies in the UK.
Chiropractic history
Chiropractic started in the United States in 1895 when Daniel David Palmer made the first chiropractic adjustment to a partial deaf-cleaner, who later claimed he could hear better as a result of manipulation. Palmer opened a chiropractic school two years later. The initial philosophy of Chiropractic is rooted in vitalism, naturalism, magnetism, spiritualism and other unscientific constructs. Palmer claimed to combine science and metaphysics. Palmer's first description and philosophy underlying chiropractic describe the body as a "machine" whose parts can be manipulated to produce a drug without drugs, spinal manipulation can improve health, and that the effects of chiropractic spinal manipulation as mediated primarily by the nervous system.
Regardless of their similarity, osteopathic practitioners seek to differentiate themselves by seeking practice settings. In a 1907 test of new legislation, Wisconsin-based chiropractors were accused of practicing osteopathic drugs without a license. Unlicensed practice causes many chiropractors, including D.D. Palmer, imprisoned. Chiropractors won their first test, but the prosecutions made by the state medical board became increasingly common and successful. Chiropractors responded with a political campaign for separate licensing laws, from osteopaths, finally succeeding in all fifty states, from Kansas in 1913 to Louisiana in 1974.
The division was developed in the chiropractic profession, with "mixers" incorporating spinal adjustments with other treatments, and "straight" relying only on spinal adjustments. The conference, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health in 1975, encouraged the development of chiropractic research. In 1987, the American Medical Association called chiropractic an "unscientific cult" and boycotted it until it lost an anti-trust case in 1987.
History of the traditional medical system of individuals
Ayurvedic Medicine
Ayurveda or ayurveda medicine has more than 5,000 years of history, now reappears as text becomes more accessible in modern English translations. These texts attempt to translate the Sanskrit version that has remained hidden in India since the British occupation from 1755-1947. As modern archaeological evidence from Harappa and Mohenja-daro is distributed, Ayurveda has now been accepted as the oldest concept of health and disease in the world found by humans and the oldest system of medicine practiced continuously. Ayurveda is a worldview that supports human loyalty and yields to the forces of Nature increasingly revealed in modern physics, chemistry, and biology. It is based on the interpretation of disease and health parallel to the forces of nature, observing the fire of the sun and making an analogy to the fire of the body; observe the current in Nature and describe the current in the body, calling the principle as Vata; observing transformations in Nature and describing transformations in the body, terming principles as Pitta; and observes stability in Nature and describes stability in the body, calling principle as Kapha.
Ayurveda can be defined as a treatment system described in a large medical encyclopedia associated with the names of Caraka, Su? Ruta, and Bhe? A, compiled and re-edited for centuries from about 200 BC to about 500 CE and written in Sanskrit. These discursive writings were collected and systematized in about 600 AD by V? Gbha? A, to produce A ???? gah? Dayasa? Hit? ('Heart of Medicine Compendium') which became the most popular and widely used book of ayurveda treatments in history. Works V? Gbha? A is translated into many other languages ​​and becomes influential throughout Asia.
His prehistory goes back to the Vedic culture and its proliferation in written form evolved in Buddhist times. Although the songs of Atharvaveda and "gveda" mention some of the herbal medicines, amulets, and recuperative prayers that reappear in the slokas stemmed from later ayurveda treaties, the earliest historical mention of the major structural and theoretical categories ayurveda treatment occurs in Buddhism. P? Li Tripi? Aka, or Canon.
Ayurveda originally came from the Vedas, as the name implies, and was first organized and captured in Sanskrit in the form of ciphered by doctors who taught their students a wise healing practice. This cipher is called slokas and is purposely designed to include some meaning, to be interpreted appropriately, known as 'tantra yukti' by knowledgeable practitioners. Ayu means longevity or healthy life, and veda means truths that human beings interpret and can be observed and science that can be proven. The Ayurveda principles include a systematic way of enabling evidence, including truth by observation and experimentation, pratyaksha; pay attention to teachers with sufficient experience, aptoupadesha; analogy with things seen in Nature, anumana; and logical arguments, yukti.
It is founded on several principles, including yama (time) and niyama (self-regulation) and places emphasis on routine and cyclical adherence, as seen in Nature. For example, it directs that habits should be arranged to coincide with the demands of the body rather than strange or developing thoughts and change the nature of human intelligence. Thus, for ayurvedic drug followers, food should only be taken when they are instinctively hungry rather than at an arbitrarily set mealtimes. Ayurveda also teaches that when a person is tired, it is not wise to eat food or drink, but to rest, because fire is low body and must gather energy to decrease the enzymes needed to digest food. The same principle of regulated living, named Dinacharya, directs the work is the justification for rest and to get enough sleep, one must make the body a strict exercise. Periodic fasting, or abstinence from all foods and drinks for a short period of one or two days helps regulate the process of elimination and prevent disease. In just a few years later practitioners of this system saw that people did not pay for their services, and to get their clients to pay, they introduced herbal remedies to start and then even started using metal and inorganic chemical compositions in pill form or herbs to cope with symptoms.
Emigration from the Indian sub-continent in the 1850s brought the practitioner Ayurveda ('Life Sciences'). medical systems over the age of 2,500 years, its adoption outside the Asian community is limited by the lack of exportable special skills and English-language reference books to a modernized and adapted form, Ayurveda New Age and Maharishi Ayurveda, under the umbrella of CAM in the 1970s to Europe. In Britain, Unani practitioners are known as actors and Ayurvedic practitioners known as vaidyas. Having its origins in Ayurveda, Naturopathic India combines various holistic practices and natural remedies and is becoming increasingly popular after the arrival of the post-Second World War waves of Indian immigrants. The Persian work for the Greeks, Unani uses some material similar to Ayurveda but is based on a philosophy closer to Greek and Arab sources than to Ayurveda. The exiles who fled from the war between Yemen and Aden in the 1960s settled near the ports of Cardiff and Liverpool and now these Middle Eastern drug practitioners are known as vaids.
In the US, Ayurveda has increased in popularity since the 1990s, when Indian-Americans moved into mainstream media, and more celebrities visited India. In addition, many Americans go to India for medical tourism to take advantage of a certified and licensed Ayurvedic medical center that is licensed and trusted by the Indian government and is widely legitimate as a medical option for chronic medical conditions. AAPNA, the Association of Ayurvedic Professionals of North America, www.aapna.org, has more than 600 members of medical professionals, including trained vaidyas from accredited schools in India trusted by the Indian government, now working as a health counselor and holistic practitioner in WE. There are more than 40 Ayurveda schools across the US, providing post-secondary education registered and operating mostly as private businesses outside the legitimized medical system, as there is no approval system in the US Department of Education. Practitioners graduated from these schools and arrived with a mandate from India practicing legally through the Freedom of Health Act, passed in 13 states. Uniform credentials and educational standards are being developed by the international CAC Council of Ayurvedic Credentialing, www.cayurvedac.com, taking into account the licensed programs in Ayurveda run under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of the Government, Department of AYUSH. In India, there are more than 600,000 doctors practice Ayurveda. Ayurveda is a legal and legitimate medical system in many countries in South Asia.
Chinese culture
Traditional Chinese Medicine has over 4,000 years of history as a treatment system based on the concept of philosophical balance (yin and yang, Qi, Blood, Jing, Body fluid, Five Elements, emotions, and spirit) approach to health which is rooted in Taoist philosophy and Chinese culture. Thus, the concept as an alternative form of therapeutic practice is found only in the Western world.
The arrival to Britain of thousands of Chinese people in the 1970s introduced Traditional Chinese Medicine - systems from Bronze Age or earlier that used acupuncture, herbs, diet and exercise. Today there are over 2,000 registered practitioners in the UK.
Sejak tahun 1970-an
Until the 1970s, western practitioners who were not part of medical institutions were referred to "irregular practitioners", and dismissed by medical institutions as unscientific or shamanic. Irregular practices become increasingly marginalized as shamanism and deception, as western medicine increasingly incorporates scientific methods and discoveries, and has an appropriate increase in the success of its treatment. In the 1970s, irregular practices were grouped with traditional practices of non-Western cultures, and with other unproven or unproven practices that were not part of biomedicine, and the whole group began to be marketed and promoted as "alternative medicine ". Following the counter-cultural movement of the 1960s, misleading marketing campaigns that promote "alternative medicine" as an effective "alternative" to biomedicine, and by changing social attitudes about not using chemicals, challenging formation and any authority, similar to other cultural values ​​and beliefs and their practices through cultural relativism, adds postmodernism and deconstructivism to the way of thinking about science and its shortcomings, and with increasing frustration and discouragement by patients about the limitations and side effects of science-based drugs, the use of alternative medicine in the west began to rise, then explosive growth began in the 1990s, when senior-level political figures began promoting alternative medicine, and began diverting government medical research funds into alternative, complementary, and integrative medicine research.
1970s to 1980s
1990s to present
In 1991, after US Senator Thomas Harkin became convinced that his allergies healed by taking bee pollen pills, he used $ 2 million from his discretionary funds to create the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), to test the efficacy of alternative medicine and warn the public as a result of his efficacy testing. The mission statement of OAM is that it is "dedicated to exploring complementary and alternative healing practices in the context of rigorous science, training alternative and complementary medicine researchers, and disseminating authoritative information to the public and professionals." Joseph M. Jacobs was appointed as OAM's first director in 1992. Jacobs' insistence on a strict scientific methodology caused friction with Senator Harkin. Harkin criticized the "irrefutable randomized clinical trial rule" and, citing the use of bee pollen to treat allergies, stated: "The scientific community does not need to understand the process before the American public can benefit from this therapy." Increasing political resistance to the use of scientific methodologies has been criticized by Dr. Jacobs and other OAM board members complained that "bullshit has trickled into every aspect of this office". In 1994, Senator Harkin responded by appearing on television with cancer patients who blamed Dr. Jacobs for blocking their access to untested cancer treatment, causing Jacobs to step down in frustration. OAM drew increasing criticism from prominent members of the scientific community, from a Nobel laureate who criticized parts of the NIH downgrading to a close level for shamanism, and the president of the American Physical Society criticized spending to test practices that "violate the basic law. " physics and more clearly resembles magic. "In 1998, the President of the North Carolina Medical Association openly called for the closure of OAM.The Director of NIH placed OAM under the strictest scientific NIH control.
In 1998, Senator Harkin responded to strict criticism and scientific control by the NIH, by raising OAM to an independent central level, raising its budget to $ 90 million annually, and changing its name to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM). The United States Congress approved the allocation without dissent. NCCAM has a mandate to promote a more thorough and scientific approach to studying alternative medicine, career training and development, outreach, and integration. In 2014, the agency was renamed the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH). The NCCIH Charter requires that 12 out of 18 board members be selected with preference to elect a primary representative of complementary and alternative medicine; 9 of the members should be licensed practitioners of alternative medicine; 6 members should be general leaders in the areas of public policy, law, health policy, and management, and 3 members must represent the interests of individual consumers of complementary and alternative medicine.
In 2009, NCCIH's budget has grown from an annual expenditure of about $ 2 million at its inception, to $ 123 million annually. In 2009, after a 17-year history of government testing resulted in almost no obvious alternative efficacy of alternative therapies, Senator Harkin complained, "One of the goals of this center is to investigate and validate alternative approaches.Be frankly, I must say publicly that it has failed.It thinks plainly that in this center and in the previous office, most of the focus is on things that disprove rather than seek and approve. "Members of the scientific and biomedical community complained that after a 17-year history was tested, at a cost of more than $ 2.5 billion to test practices that are scientifically and biologically unreasonable, almost no alternative therapy demonstrates clear efficacy.
From 1990 to 1997, the use of alternative medicine in the US increased 25%, with an appropriate 50% increase in spending. In 2013, 50% of Americans use alternative medicine, and annual spending on CAM in the US is $ 34 Billion.
Other periods
The terms 'alternative' and 'complement' tend to be used interchangeably to describe a variety of therapies that try to use the body's own healing powers by strengthening the natural healing process to restore health. In the days of ancient Greece, the Hippocratic movement, generally regarded as the fathers of medicine, really gave rise to modern naturopathy and indeed much of CAM today. They place great emphasis on a good diet and a healthy lifestyle to restore balance; drugs are used more to support healing than cure disease.
Complementary medicines have evolved through history and become formalized from primitive practices; though much developed during the nineteenth century as an alternative to sometimes dangerous practices at the time, such as blood cleansing and purification. In the UK, the medical gap between CAM and conventional medicine has been characterized by conflict, intolerance and prejudice on both sides and during the early 20th century CAM is virtually banned in Britain: healers viewed as freaks and hypnotherapy are subjected to repeated attempts at legal limits. Alternative health movements are now accepted as part of modern life, having developed from a grassroots revival in the 1960s that reacted to environmental degradation, unhealthy diets and rampant consumerism.
Until the arrival of the Romans in AD43, medical practices were limited to the basic use of plant materials, prayers and incantations. After assimilating the Hippocrates corpus, the Romans brought a great reparatoris on herbal treatments and introduced the concept of a hospital as a centralized care center. In the UK, hydrotherapy (water use both internally and externally to maintain health and prevent disease) can be traced back to Rome's spa. This is coupled with practices from the Far East and China that were introduced by traders using the Silk Road.
During the hunting of Catholic and Protestant wizards from the 14th to the 17th centuries, traditional dukun activity was highly restricted and knowledge was often lost because it existed only as an oral tradition. The widespread emigration from Europe to North America in the 18th and 19th centuries includes knowledge of herbs and some of the plants themselves. It is combined with American native medicine and then imported back into the UK where it is reintegrated with a surviving herbal tradition to evolve as a herbal medicine herbs .
The laws of nature similia similibus curantur, or 'like healed with likes', were recognized by Hippocrates but only developed as a practical healing system at the beginning of the 19th century by a German, Dr Samuel Hahnemann. Homeopathy was brought to England in the 1830s by Dr. Quinn who introduced him to the English nobility, whose patronage continues to this day. Despite the controversy in conventional medical circles, homeopathy is available under the National Health Service, and in Scotland about 25% of doctors hold qualifications in homeopathy or have undergone several homeopathic training.
The impact on CAM from mass immigration to Britain continues into the 21st century. Originating in Japan, cryotherapy has been developed by Polish researchers into a system that claims to produce long-lasting relief from conditions such as rheumatism, psoriasis and muscle aches. The patient spends several minutes indoors cooled to -110 Â ° C, during which the skin temperature drops about 12 Â ° C.
CAM usage is widespread and increasing in all developed countries. The English are served with a wide selection of treatments ranging from traditional to innovative and technologically advanced. Section 60 of the Health Act of 1999 allows for new health professions to be made by the Order rather than the primary law. This raises public health policy issues that balance regulation, training, research, evidence base and funding against freedom of choice in culturally diverse societies.
Relativist Perspective
The term alternative medicine refers to systems of thought and medical practice that serve as alternatives or subsistence outside conventional conventional medicine. Alternative medicine can not be absent, strong, authoritative and stable medical orthodoxy that can serve as an alternative. Such an orthodoxy was only established in the West during the nineteenth century through a systematic process of regulation, association, institutional development and medical education.
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