Sustainable farming is sustainably farming based on an understanding of ecosystem services, the study of the relationship between organisms and the environment.
Video Sustainable agriculture
History of the term
The phrase 'sustainable agriculture' was reportedly created by Australian agricultural scientist Gordon McClymont. Wes Jackson is credited with the first publication of the expression in his 1980 book New Roots for Agriculture . The term became popular in the late 1980s.
It has been defined as "an integrated system of plant and animal production practices that have long-term location-specific applications", such as to meet the needs of food and human fiber, to improve the quality of the environment and natural resources based on those that depend on the agricultural economy, to make the most efficient use of non-renewable and on-farm resources and integrate natural biological cycles and controls, to maintain economic viability of agricultural operations, and to improve the quality of life for farmers and communities as all.
Maps Sustainable agriculture
The main principles
There are several key principles related to sustainability in agriculture:
- Merging biological and ecological processes into agricultural and food production practices. For example, this process may include nutrient cycling, soil regeneration, and nitrogen fixation.
- Uses non-renewable and unsustainable inputs, especially those that are harmful to the environment.
- Use farmers' skills to work productively on the land and to promote self-sufficiency and self-sufficiency of farmers.
- Address agricultural and natural resource issues through collaboration and collaboration of people with different skills. Problems addressed include pest and irrigation management.
Agricultural and natural resources
Sustainable agriculture can be understood as an ecosystem approach to agriculture. Practices that may cause long-term damage to the soil include excessive soil clotting (causing erosion) and irradiation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization). Long-term experiments have provided some of the best data on how practices affect soil properties that are important to sustainability. In the United States, a federal agency, USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, specializes in providing technical and financial assistance to those interested in pursuing the conservation of natural resources and agricultural production as compatible destinations.
The most important factors for individual sites are sun, air, soil, nutrients, and water. Out of the fifth, the quality and quantity of water and soil are well suited to human intervention through time and labor.
Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, plants also depend on soil nutrition and water availability. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, the soil suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes unusable or suffers from reduced crop yields. Sustainable agriculture depends on land replenishment while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas (used to convert atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizers), or mineral ores (eg, phosphates). Possible sources of nitrogen which, in principle, are available indefinitely, including:
- recycle plant and animal waste or treat human waste
- plant legume and forage crops such as groundnuts or alfalfa that are symbiotic with nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia
- The industrial production of nitrogen by the Haber process uses hydrogen, which is currently derived from natural gas (but this hydrogen can be made by electrolysis of water using electricity (possibly from solar cells or windmills)) or
- genetically engineered plants (non-legumes) to form a nitrogen-fixing symbiosis or fix nitrogen without microbial symbionts.
The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but only gradually became feasible. Continuous options for replacing other nutritional inputs such as phosphorus and potassium are more limited.
More realistic, and often neglected options, including long-term crop rotations, return to natural cycles that annually flood the land (restoring unlimited loss of nutrients) such as the Nile flood, long-term biochar use, and the use of customized plant and landrace crops with less ideal conditions such as pests, droughts, or nutritional deficiencies. Plants that require high levels of soil nutrition can be cultivated more sustainably with appropriate fertilizer management practices.
Water
In some areas, sufficient rainfall is available for plant growth, but many other areas require irrigation. In order for the irrigation system to be sustainable, they need proper management (to avoid salinization) and should not use more water from the source than can be naturally recharged. Otherwise, water sources effectively become non-renewable resources. Improved well-water drilling technology and submersible pumps, combined with the development of drip irrigation and low-pressure pivots, have made it possible to regularly achieve high yields in areas where rainfall dependency alone has made successful farming previously unpredictable. However, this progress comes with a price. In many areas, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, water is used more quickly than can be recharged.
Some steps should be taken to develop a drought-resistant farming system even in "normal" years with average rainfall. These measures include policy and management actions:
- improve water conservation and storage steps,
- provides incentives for the selection of drought-resistant plant species,
- using volume-volume irrigation system,
- manage plants to reduce water loss, and
- does not plant crops at all.
Indicators for sustainable water resource development are:
- Internal renewable water resources. This is the average annual river flow and groundwater produced from endogenous endogenous, having ensured that there is no double counting. It represents the maximum amount of water resources produced within the boundaries of a country. This value, expressed on average every year, is invariant in time (except in case of proven climate change). Indicators can be expressed in three different units: in absolute terms (km³/year), in mm/year (this is the country's humidity measure), and as a population function (mÃ,³/person per year).
- Global renewable water resources. This is the amount of internal renewable water resources and inflows coming from abroad. Unlike internal resources, this value may vary with time if upstream development reduces the availability of water at the border. Agreements ensuring the specific flow to be ordered from upstream to downstream countries can be taken into account in the calculation of global water resources in both countries.
- Dependency rate. This is the proportion of global renewable water resources coming from abroad, expressed as a percentage. This is an expression of the extent to which a country's water resources depend on neighboring countries.
- Withdrawal of water. Given the limitations described above, only the withdrawal of dirty water can be calculated systematically by country as a measure of water use. The absolute or per-person value of the annual water withdrawal gives a measure of the importance of water in the country's economy. When expressed in the percentage of water resources, it indicates the level of pressure on water resources. Rough estimates indicate that if water withdrawal exceeds a quarter of a country's global renewable water resources, water can be considered a limiting factor for development and, in turn, pressure on water resources can affect all sectors, from agriculture to the environment and fisheries.
Land
Soil erosion is rapidly becoming one of the most serious problems in the world. It is estimated that "more than a million million tonnes of southern African soil is eroded annually, experts predict that crops will be halved within thirty to fifty years if erosion continues at this level." Soil erosion occurs all over the world. This phenomenon is called the peak soil because large-scale agricultural farming techniques today jeopardize the human ability to grow food in the present and future. Without efforts to improve soil management practices, the availability of fertile soils will become increasingly problematic. Intensive farming reduces soil carbon levels, damages soil structure, plant growth and ecosystem functions, and accelerates climate change. Soil management techniques including landless farming, mainline designs, windbreaks to reduce wind erosion, incorporate carbon-containing organic matter back into the fields, reduce chemical fertilizers, and protect soils from water runoff.
Phosphate
Phosphate is a major component in chemical fertilizers. This is the second most important nutrient for plants after nitrogen, and is often a limiting factor. This is important for sustainable agriculture because it can improve soil fertility and crop yields. Phosphorus is involved in all major metabolic processes including photosynthesis, energy transfer, signal transduction, macromolecular biosynthesis, and respiration. Required for root ramifications and strength and seed formation, and can increase resistance to disease.
Phosphorus is found in soils in both organic and inorganic forms and forms about 0.05% of soil biomass. However, only 0.1% of the present phosphorus can be absorbed by the plant. This is due to poor solubility and high reactivity of phosphorus with elements in the soil such as aluminum, calcium, and iron, causing phosphorus to be repaired. The long-term use of chemical fertilizers containing phosphates causes eutrophication and depletes soil fertility, so that people have looked to other sources.
The alternative is phosphate rock, a natural source that already exists in some soils. In India, there are nearly 260 million tonnes of phosphate rock. However, phosphate rocks are a non-renewable resource and are being spent by mining for agricultural use: the reserves are expected to run out within 50-100 years; peak phosphorus will occur in about 2030. This is expected to increase food prices as the cost of phosphate fertilizer increases.
The way to make phosphate rocks more effective and last longer is to implement microbial inoculants such as phosphate solvent microorganisms, known as PSM. The source of this PSM is compost or recycling of human and animal waste. Specific PSM can be added to the ground. These soluble phosphors already exist in the soil and use processes such as the production of organic acids and ion exchange reactions to make phosphorus available to plants. When this PSM is present, there has been an increase in plant growth, especially in terms of shoot height, dry biomass, and grain yield.
Phosphorus uptake is even more efficient with the presence of mycorrhiza in the soil. Mycorrhiza is a kind of symbiotic mutualistic relationship between plants and fungi, which are well equipped to absorb nutrients, including phosphorus, on the ground. This fungus can increase nutrient uptake in the soil where phosphorus has been repaired by aluminum, calcium, and iron. Mycorrhizae can also release organic acids that dissolve phosphorus that are not available.
Landed
As the global population increases and demand for food increases, there is pressure on land resources. In planning and managing land use, considering the impact of land use change on factors such as soil erosion may support long-term sustainable agriculture, as demonstrated by the Wadi Ziqlab study, a dry region in the Middle East where farmers graze cattle and grow olives, vegetables , and grains.
Looking back at the 20th century shows that for poor people, following environmentally friendly land practices is not always a viable option because of many complex and challenging lives. Currently, increased land degradation in developing countries may be linked to rural poverty among small farmers when forced to engage in unsustainable agricultural practices because of need.
Land is a limited resource on Earth. And although the expansion of agricultural land can reduce biodiversity and contribute to deforestation, the picture is very complex; for example, a study examining the introduction of sheep by the Norse settlers (Viking) to the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic concluded that, over time, subtle land sharing contributed more to soil erosion and degradation than grazing on its own.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that in the coming decades, agricultural land will continue to disappear for industrial and urban development, along with wetland reclamation, and conversion of forests into cultivation, resulting in loss of biodiversity and increased soil erosion.. Many tools will be required to compensate for this projection. In Europe, one such tool is a geo-spatial data system called SoilConsWeb that is being developed to inform conservation thinking land-making decisions within the agricultural sector and other areas of land management.
Energy
Energy is used all the way to the food chain from farm to fork. In industrial agriculture, energy is used in on-farm mechanization, food processing, storage, and transportation processes. It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely related to food prices. Oil is also used as an input in agricultural chemicals. The International Energy Agency projected higher non-renewable energy resource prices as a result of depleted fossil fuel resources. Therefore, this can reduce global food security unless action is taken to 'separate' fossil fuel energy from food production, with a move toward a 'smart-energy' farming system including renewable energy. The use of solar irrigation in Pakistan has been recognized as a prime example of energy use in creating a closed system for water irrigation in agricultural activities.
Economy
The socioeconomic aspects of sustainability are also partially understood. Regarding the less concentrated agriculture, the best known analysis is the Netting study on small peasant systems through history.
Given the limited supply of natural resources at certain costs and locations, inefficient farming or destructing the resources required may eventually deplete the resources available or the ability to purchase and obtain them. It can also generate negative externalities, such as pollution as well as financial and production costs. There are several studies that include this negative externality in economic analysis of ecosystem services, biodiversity, land degradation and sustainable land management. These include the Ecosystem Economy and Biodiversity study led by Pavan Sukhdev and the Land Degradation Economy Initiative that seeks to build cost-benefit economic analysis on sustainable land management practices and sustainable agriculture.
The way crops are sold must be taken into account in the sustainability equation. Locally sold foods do not require additional energy for transportation (including consumers). Food sold in remote locations, whether in farmers' markets or supermarkets, incurs different energy costs for materials, labor and transport.
Pursuing sustainable crop yields many localized benefits. Having the opportunity to sell products directly to consumers, rather than at wholesale or commodity prices, enables farmers to benefit optimally.
The triple base line framework (including social and environmental shared financial aspects) shows that sustainable enterprises can be technologically and economically feasible. For this to happen, growth in material and population consumption needs to be slowed and there must be a drastic increase in the efficiency of material and energy use. To make the transition, long-term and short-term goals need to be balanced by improving equity and quality of life.
Method
What grows where and how it grows is a matter of choice. Two of the many possible sustainable agricultural practices are crop rotation and land amendments, both designed to ensure that cultivated plants can obtain the necessary nutrients for healthy growth. Land amendments will include using locally available compost from community recycling centers. This community recycling center helps produce the compost needed by local organic farming.
Using community recycling from yard and kitchen waste using resources normally available in the local area. These resources have in the past been dumped into large waste dumps, now used to produce low-cost organic composts for organic farming. Other practices include growing a variety of annual crops in one area, each of which will grow in separate seasons in order not to compete with each other for natural resources. This system will result in increased resistance to disease and decreased effects of erosion and loss of nutrients in the soil. Nitrogen fixation of nuts, for example, is used in conjunction with plants that rely on nitrate from soil for growth, helping to allow land to be reused annually. The legum will grow for a season and replenish the soil with ammonium and nitrate, and the next season other crops can be seeded and planted in the field for harvest preparation.
Monoculture, the method of planting only one plant at a time in a particular field, is a very wide practice, but there are questions about its sustainability, especially if the same plant is planted every year. Today is realized to overcome this problem local cities and farms can work together to produce the compost needed for farmers around them. This is combined with growing a mixture of plants (polyculture) occasionally reducing disease or pest problems but polyculture is rare, if ever, compared to the wider practice of planting different crops in consecutive years (crop rotation) with the same plant diversity overall. Such methods may also support sustainable weed management as the development of herbicide-resistant weeds is reduced. Cropping systems that include various crops (polyculture and/or rotation) can also fill nitrogen (if legumes are included) and may also use resources such as sunlight, water, or nutrients more efficiently (Field Crops Res 34: 239).
Replacing natural ecosystems with selected plant varieties specifically reduces the genetic diversity found in wildlife and makes the organism susceptible to widespread disease. The Great Irish Famine (1845-1849) is a famous example of the dangers of monoculture. In practice, there is no single approach to sustainable agriculture, since the objectives and the right methods should be tailored to each case. There may be some agricultural techniques that are inherently contrary to the concept of sustainability, but there is widespread misunderstanding about the effects of some practices. Today the growth of local farmers' markets offers small farms the ability to sell the products they are planting back to the cities they get from the recycling compost. This will help move people away from slash-and-burn or slash-and-charter techniques that are typical of shifting cultivation. This is often referred to as inherently damaging cultivation, but slash-and-burn has been practiced in the Amazon for at least 6000 years. Serious deforestation did not begin until the 1970s, largely as a result of Brazilian government programs and policies.
There are many ways to practice sustainable farming. Some key tools for grazing management include fencing grazing areas to smaller areas called paddocks, decreasing stock density, and moving stocks between paddocks frequently.
Ongoing intensification
Given the concerns about food security, human population growth and reduced land suitable for agriculture, sustainable intensive farming practices are necessary to sustain high yields while maintaining soil health and ecosystem services. The capacity for ecosystem services to be robust enough to allow for the reduction of the use of synthetic, non-renewable inputs while maintaining or even improving crops has been a matter of debate. Recent work in the important global irrigated rice production system in East Asia has suggested that - in relation to pest management at least - promoting ecosystem services of biological control using nectar crops can reduce insecticide requirements by up to 70% while yielding a 5% advantage over practices standard.
Ground care
Soil steaming can be used as an ecological alternative to chemicals for soil sterilization. A variety of methods are available to encourage steam to the ground to kill pests and improve soil health.
Solarizing is based on the same principle, used to increase the temperature of the soil to kill pathogens and pests.
Certain plants act as natural biofumigants, releasing pest-suppressing compounds. Mustard, radish, and other plants in the family of brassica are best known for this effect. There are mustard varieties proven to be almost as effective as synthetic fumigants at the same or lower cost.
Off-farm impact
A farm that is able to "produce continuously", but has a negative effect on environmental quality elsewhere is not sustainable agriculture. Examples of cases where a global view can be justified are the excessive application of synthetic fertilizers or manure, which can increase agricultural productivity but can contaminate nearby rivers and coastal waters (eutrophication). The other extreme can also be undesirable, because the problem of low yields due to nutrient fatigue in the soil has been linked to rainforest destruction, as in the case of slash and burn for livestock feed. In Asia, certain land for sustainable agriculture is about 12.5 hectares covering land for livestock feed, cereal production grounds for some commercial crops and even recycling of related food crops. In some cases even small units of cultivation are also included in this number (AARI-1996)
Sustainability affects overall production, which must be increased to meet rising food and fiber needs as the world's human population extends to a projected 9.3 billion people by 2050. Increased production may come from creating new farmland, which could improve carbon dioxide emissions if carried out through desert reclamation as in Israel and Palestine, or it can exacerbate emissions if done through slash and burn agriculture, as in Brazil.
Anthropogenic changes
When the Earth enters Anthropocene, an age characterized by human impacts such as climate change, agriculture and agricultural development are at risk. Agriculture has a tremendous environmental footprint, and simultaneously causes massive global environmental change and is strongly affected by this global change. In addition, the human population continues to grow rapidly at a rate that will require an increase in global food production. This is complicated by the fact that the Earth is experiencing an increased environmental risk. Sustainable agriculture provides a potential solution to enable farming systems to feed an ever-growing population while successfully operating under changing environmental conditions.
Social
Development
In 2007, the UN reported on "Organic Agriculture and Food Security", stating that the use of organic and sustainable agriculture can be used as a tool to achieve global food security without expanding land use and reducing environmental impacts. Another way to define sustainable agriculture is to pay attention to the "human and environmental aspects," as it shifts to a more unsustainable way of farming on US agriculture. During the Great Depression in the United States, many farming families live in inhuman and hungry conditions and treat "sustainability as an input-resource and food-output equation." Although the condition has improved, agriculture has not been so much. There is evidence provided by developing countries from the early 2000s which states that when people in their communities are not taken into account in the agricultural process, serious harm has occurred. Although global food security is unlikely to drop dramatically, these practices will have an impact, at first hand, in local, rural farming communities, making them unable to feed themselves and their families. Social scientist Charles Kellogg has stated that, "In a last resort, the exploited people passed their suffering to the ground." This change to a more unsustainable farm has suffered for many. Because if something is sustainable, it should be like that in all its aspects, not just the harvest or the health of the soil. It has been seen in the developing countries of Bangladesh, the hunger of rural farming communities because of unsustainable farming methods. Sustainable agriculture means the ability to permanently and persistently "feed its constituent population."
There are many opportunities that can increase farmers' profits, better communities, and continue sustainable practices. For example, in Uganda Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) were initially illegal, however, under stressful circumstances where Banana Bacterial Wilt (BBW) had the potential to remove 90% of the results they decided to explore GMOs as a possible solution. Therefore, as a result of the banana crisis in Uganda caused by BBW, the government issued a National Biotechnology and Biosafety Bill that would allow scientists who are part of the National Banana Research Program to begin experimenting with genetically modified organisms. These efforts have the potential to help the local people as most live from the food they grow on their own and will keep their economies in check because the main source of their products will remain stable.
Female
In the last 30 years (1978-2007) in the United States, the number of female husbandry operators has tripled. Currently, women operate 14 percent of farms, compared with five percent in 1978. Much of the growth is due to women farming outside the "male-dominated field of conventional farming". In agriculture-supported societies it represents 40 percent of agricultural operators, and 21 percent of organic farmers. With the change of law in land ownership over the past century, women are now allowed to have the same freedom of ownership of the land as that of men.
International policy
Sustainable agriculture has become an interesting topic in the international policy arena, particularly with regard to its potential to reduce risks associated with climate change and the growth of the human population.
The Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change, as part of its recommendations for policymakers to achieve food security in the face of climate change, urges that sustainable agriculture should be integrated into national and international policies. The Commission emphasizes that increasing weather variability and climate shocks will negatively impact agricultural output, which requires early action to encourage changes in agricultural production systems toward increased resilience. It also called for dramatic increases in investment in sustainable agriculture over the next decade, including in national research and development budgets, land rehabilitation, economic incentives, and infrastructure improvements.
Policy ethic
Most agricultural professionals agree that there is a "moral obligation to pursue the goal [] of continuity." The main debate comes from what system will give way to that goal. Because if unsustainable methods are used on a large scale it will have enormous negative effects on the environment and human population. The best way to create policies for agriculture is to be free of any bias. A good review will be done with "practical wisdom," a virtue identified by Aristotle, which distinguishes the practical wisdom of scientific knowledge, is derived from the Nichomachean Ethic. Agricultural science is called "agronomy", the root of this word relates to scientific law. Although agriculture may be incompatible with scientific law, and may not be designed to be treated as Aristotelian scientific knowledge, but more practical wisdom. Practical wisdom requires recognition of past failures in agriculture to further achieve a more sustainable agricultural system.
City planning
The use of available city spaces (eg, rooftop gardens, community gardens, sharing gardens, and other urban farm forms) for cooperative food production may contribute to sustainability. A recent idea (2014) is to create large urban technical facilities for Vertical farming. Potential benefits include year-round production, isolation from pests and diseases, controlled resource recycling, and reduced transportation costs.
The increasing threat of climate change has affected cities and public officials thinking more proactively about how they can deliver services and food more efficiently. The cost of environmental transport can be avoided if people take back their connection to fresh food. This raises questions; However, about the environmental cost advantages associated with local farming vs. large-scale operations that offer food security worldwide.
Key debate
There are several key debates involving sustainable agriculture:
Ecocentric vs technocentric
The main debate on how sustainable agriculture can be achieved is centered around two different approaches: the ecocentric approach and the technetium approach. The ecocentric approach emphasizes the growth rate of non-growth or low humanity, and focuses on organic and biodynamic farming techniques with the aim of changing consumption patterns, as well as resource allocation and use. The technocycolic approach argues that sustainability can be achieved through a variety of strategies, from the view that state-led modifications of industrial systems such as conservation-oriented farming systems must be implemented, arguing that biotechnology is the best way to meet increased demand for food.
Multifunctional vs. agriculture ecosystem services
There are different scientific communities that look at the topic of sustainable agriculture through two separate lenses: multifunctional agriculture (MFA) and ecosystem services (ES). While these two frames are similar, they see the agricultural functions in different lights. Those who use multifunctional farming philosophy focus on agriculture-centered approaches, and define function as the output of agricultural activities. The main argument of the MFA is that agriculture has other functions apart from the production of food and fiber, and therefore agriculture is a multifunctional enterprise. These additional functions include the management of renewable natural resources and the conservation of landscapes and biodiversity. On the other hand, ES focuses on a service-focused approach, and defines function as providing services to humans. In particular, ES argues that individuals and society as a whole receive benefits from ecosystems, called ecosystem services. In the field of sustainable agriculture, services provided by the ecosystem include pollination, soil formation, and nutrient cycles, all of which are functions necessary for food production.
Obstacle
Since World War II, the dominant agricultural model in the United States and the entire national food system has been characterized by a focus on monetary profitability at the expense of social and environmental integrity.
In sustainable agriculture, changes in the lower levels of soil and loss of nutrients, improved soil structure, and the rate of beneficial microorganisms are not rapid. Changes are not immediately proven to operate when using sustainable agriculture. In conventional farming, the benefits are easily visible without weeds, pests, etc. And the "externalization process" hides costs for the land and surrounding ecosystems. The main obstacle to sustainable agriculture is the lack of knowledge about its benefits. Many of the benefits are not visible, so it is often unknown.
Criticism
Efforts towards a more sustainable agriculture are supported by sustainability communities, but these are often seen only as an additional step and not an end. Some foresee a sustainable, sustainable state economy that may be very different from today: greatly reducing energy use, minimal ecological footprint, fewer consumer packaged goods, local purchases with short food supply chains, less processed foods, more home and community gardens, etc..
See also
- Alternative to pesticides
- Declaration for Healthy Food and Agriculture
- Hydrozoning
- Local food
- Farming and Food Systems (journals)
- Sustainable Agriculture Innovation Network (between English and Chinese)
- Sustainable Commodity Initiative
- Sustainable development
- Continuous food system
- Continuous landscape
References
Further reading
- Dore, J. (1997) Sustainability Indicator for Agriculture: Introduction Guide for Regional/National and On-farm Indicators , Rural Industry Research and Development Institute, Australia.
- Falvey, Lindsay (2004) Sustainability - Elusive or Illusion: Wise Environmental Management. International Development Agency, Adelaide.
- Gold, Mary (1999) Sustainable Agriculture: Definition and Terms . Special Reference List Seri no. SRB 99-02 SRB Update 94-5 September 1999. National Agricultural Library, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture
- Hayes, B. (2008) Proposed Trial: Land Amelioration at Riverland South Australia .
- Paull, J. (2014) Lord Northbourne, the man who invented organic farming, biography. Journal of Organic Systems, 9 (1), 31-53.
- Pender J., Place F., Ehui S. (2006) Sustainable Land Management Strategies in the East African Highlands
- Pollan M. (2007) Omnivorous Dilemma: The Natural History of the Four Foods
- Roberts W. (2008) World No-Food Guide
- Royal Society (February 2008) permanent dead links ] Dual issues dedicated to Philosophical Transactions B on Sustainable Agriculture. Some articles are available for free.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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