Commercialization of renewable energy involves deploying three generations of renewable energy technologies for more than 100 years. First generation technology, which is mature and economically competitive, including biomass, hydroelectric, geothermal and heat power. Second generation technology is ready on the market and is in use today; they include solar heating, photovoltaic, wind power, solar thermal power plants, and modern bioenergy forms. Third generation technology requires ongoing R & D efforts to make a major contribution on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, geothermal heat-dry-rock, and marine energy. In 2012, renewable energy accounts for about half of the installed capacity of the new nameplate and costs continue to fall.
Public policy and political leadership help "match the playing field" and encourage the acceptance of wider renewable energy technologies. Countries like Germany, Denmark and Spain have taken the lead in implementing innovative policies that have driven most of the growth over the past decade. In 2014, Germany is committed to the "Energiewende" transition to a sustainable energy economy, and Denmark is committed to 100% renewable energy by 2050. There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets.
Renewable energy continues its rapid growth by 2015, providing many benefits. There is a new record for wind and installed photovoltaic capacity (64GW and 57GW) and new highs of US $ 329 Billion for global renewable investment. The main benefit of this investment growth is job growth. The top countries for investment in recent years are China, Germany, Spain, the United States, Italy, and Brazil. Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy, First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Goldwind, Sinovel, Targray, Trina Solar, Vestas, and Yingli.
Attention to climate change also encourages an increasing growth in the renewable energy industry. According to 2011 projections by the International Energy Agency's (IEA), solar power plants can generate the majority of the world's electricity in 50 years, reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions.
Renewable power is more effective at creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States.
Video Renewable energy commercialization
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Rationale for renewable energy
Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, and addressing them requires major changes to the energy infrastructure. Renewable energy technology is an important contributor to the portfolio of energy supplies, as they contribute to world energy security, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and provide opportunities to reduce greenhouse gases. The fossil fuels that disrupt the climate are replaced by clean, stable, and inexhaustible energy sources:
... the transition from coal, oil, and gas to wind, sun, and geothermal energy is underway. In the old economy, energy is produced by burning something - oil, coal, or natural gas - which leads to the carbon emissions that have dictated our economy. The new energy economy exploits energy in the wind, energy coming from the sun, and heat from within the earth itself.
In an international public opinion survey there is strong support for various methods to tackle energy supply problems. These methods include promoting renewable sources such as solar and wind power, requiring utilities to use more renewable energy, and providing tax incentives to encourage the development and use of such technology. It is hoped that renewable energy investment will pay off economically in the long term.
EU member states have shown support for ambitious renewable energy goals. In 2010, Eurobarometer surveyed twenty-seven EU member states on the target "to increase the share of renewable energy in the EU by 20 percent by 2020". Most people in all twenty-seven countries agree on the goal or call for it to go further. In the EU, 57 percent think that the proposed goal is "about right" and 16 percent think that "is too simple." By comparison, 19 percent said it was "too ambitious".
In 2011, new evidence has emerged that there are major risks associated with traditional energy sources, and that major changes to the mix of energy technologies are needed:
Some of the tragedies of mining globally have underscored human sacrifices from the coal supply chain. New EPA initiatives targeting air tobacco, coal ash, and waste disposal highlight the environmental impacts of coal and the cost of overcoming them with control technology. The use of fracking in natural gas exploration is being scrutinized, with evidence of groundwater contamination and greenhouse gas emissions. Concerns are mounting about the large amount of water used in coal and nuclear power plants, especially in areas of the country facing water shortages. The events at the Fukushima nuclear plant have renewed doubts about the ability to operate large numbers of nuclear plants safely in the long term. Further, cost estimates for "next generation" nuclear units continue to increase, and lenders do not want to finance these factories without taxpayer guarantees.
The Global Status Report of REN21 2014 says that renewable energy is no longer just an energy source, but a way of addressing urgent social, political, economic and environmental problems:
Currently, renewable energy is not only seen as an energy source, but also as a tool to address many other urgent needs, including: improving energy security; reduce the health and environmental impacts associated with fossil and nuclear energy; mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions; increase educational opportunities; create jobs; reduce poverty; and increase gender equality... Renewable has entered the mainstream.
Renewable energy growth
In 2008 for the first time, more renewable energy than conventional power capacity is added both in the EU and the US, demonstrating the "fundamental transition" of the world energy market toward renewable energy, according to a report released by REN21, a global renewable energy policy network based in Paris. In 2010, renewable power accounts for about a third of the capacity of newly built power plants.
By the end of 2011, total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeds 1,360 GW, up 8%. The renewable energy that generates electricity accounts for nearly half of the 208 GW of globally added capacity during 2011. Wind and solar photovoltaics accounted for nearly 40% and 30%. Based on the REN21 2014 report, renewable energy accounts for 19 percent for energy consumption and 22 percent for our power plants in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided into 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.
During the five years from late 2004 to 2009, renewable energy capacity worldwide grew at a rate of 10-60 percent per year for many technologies, while actual production grew 1.2% overall. In 2011, UN Under-Secretary-General Achim Steiner said: "Sustainable growth in the core segment of this green economy does not happen by chance.The combination of government targeting, policy support and stimulus funds supports the rise of renewable industries and brings the transformation of our much-needed global energy system within reach. "He added:" Renewable energy is evolving both in terms of investment, projects and geographic spread, so they are making an increasing contribution to combating climate change, fighting energy poverty and energy insecurity. "
According to 2011 projections by the International Energy Agency, solar power plants can generate most of the world's electricity within 50 years, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions that endanger the environment. The IEA has said: "Photovoltaics and solar thermal plants may meet most of the world's demand for electricity by 2060 - and half of all energy needs - with wind, hydro power and biomass power plants that supply most of the remaining generations." "Solar and photovoltaic solar energy together can be a major source of electricity".
In 2013, China leads the world in renewable energy production, with a total capacity of 378 GW, primarily from hydro and wind power plants. In 2014, China leads the world in the production and use of wind power, photovoltaic solar power and smart network technology, generating almost as much water, wind and solar energy as all French and German power plants are combined. China's renewable energy sector is growing faster than fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity. Since 2005, the production of solar cells in China has grown 100-fold. Since China's renewable manufacturing has grown, the cost of renewable energy technologies has declined. Innovation has helped, but the main driver of cost reduction is market expansion.
See also renewable energy in the United States for US numbers.
Economic trends
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. The IEA 2011 report says: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies becomes cost competitive in a wide range of situations, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for certain economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are regulated to continue. "In 2011, there was a substantial reduction in the cost of solar and wind technologies:
The price of PV modules per MW has dropped by 60 percent since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg's estimates of New Energy Finance, placing solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with electric retail prices in bright countries. Wind turbine prices also fell - 18 percent per MW in the past two years - reflecting, as is the case with the sun, fierce competition in the supply chain. Further improvements in measurable energy costs for solar, wind and other technologies lie ahead, pose a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.
Hydro and geothermal electricity produced at a profitable location is now the cheapest way to generate electricity. The cost of renewable energy continues to decline, and measured electrical costs (LCOE) decreases for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies.
Renewable energy is also the most economical solution for new connected network capacity in areas with good resources. As renewable power costs fall, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technology is now often the most economical solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired power plants are the main source of power generation (eg on islands, outside the network and in some countries), low-cost renewable solutions are almost always present". In 2012, renewable power generation technology accounts for about half of all new power plant capacity additions globally. In 2011, the additions included 41 gigawatts (GW) of new wind power capacity, 30 GW of PV, 25 GW of hydro-electric, 6 GW of biomass, 0.5 GW CSP, and 0.1 GW of geothermal power.
Three generations of technology
Renewable energy includes a number of sources and technologies at various stages of commercialization. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has established three generations of renewable energy technologies, reaching over 100 years:
- " First generation technology emerged from the industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century and included hydro power, biomass burning, geothermal and heat power.This technology is widely used. >
- Second generation technologies include solar heating and cooling, wind power, modern bioenergy form, and solar photovoltaic. It is now entering the market as a result of research, development and demonstration (RD & D) investments since the 1980s. Initial investment was driven by energy security concerns associated with the oil crisis in the 1970s but the lasting appeal of this technology is due, at least in part, to environmental benefits. Many technologies reflect significant material progress.
- Third generation technology is still in development and includes advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technology, solar thermal power, geothermal geothermal, and ocean energy. Advances in nanotechnology may also play a major role. "First-generation technology is well established, second-generation technology is entering the market, and third generation technology relies heavily on long-term research and development commitments, in which the public sector has a role to play.
Maps Renewable energy commercialization
First generation technology
First generation technology is widely used in locations with abundant resources. Their future use depends on exploring the potential remaining resources, especially in developing countries, and in addressing environmental and social acceptability challenges.
Biomass
Biomass for heat and electricity is a fully mature technology that offers a ready-to-use disposal mechanism for urban, agricultural, and industrial organic waste. However, the industry remained relatively stagnant during the decade to 2007, although demand for biomass (mostly wood) continues to grow in many developing countries. One of the problems of biomass is that materials that are directly burned in cooking stoves produce pollutants, leading to severe health and environmental consequences, although an improved cookware program has reduced some of these effects. First generation biomass technology can compete economically, but it may still need spreading support to address public acceptance and small-scale issues.
Hydroelectric
Hydroelectric is a term that refers to electricity generated by hydropower; production of electric power through the use of gravitational force of fall or flowing water. By 2015 hydropower generates 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity and is expected to increase by about 3.1% annually over the next 25 years. The hydroelectric plant has the advantage of being long-lived and many of the existing plants have been in operation for over 100 years.
Hydroelectric power is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region producing 32 percent of global hydro power in 2010. China is the largest producer of hydroelectric power, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing about 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectric power plants larger than 10 GW: Three Dam Gorges in China, Itaipu Dam on the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Dam Guri in Venezuela. The cost of hydroelectric power is low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from hydroelectric power plants greater than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 US cents per kilowatt-hour.
Geothermal and heat power
Geothermal power plants can operate 24 hours per day, providing basic load capacity. The estimated global potential capacity for geothermal power plants varies considerably, ranging from 40 GW in 2020 to as much as 6,000 GW.
Geothermal power capacity grew from about 1 GW in 1975 to nearly 10 GW in 2008. The United States is a world leader in terms of installed capacity, which represents 3.1 GW. Other countries with significant installed capacity include Philippines (1.9 GW), Indonesia (1.2 GW), Mexico (1.0 GW), Italy (0.8 GW), Iceland (0.6 GW), Japan (0.5 GW), and New Zealand (0.5 GW)). In some countries, geothermal power is a significant part of the total electricity supply, such as in the Philippines, where geothermal represents 17 percent of total mixed power by the end of 2008.
The geothermal heat pump (ground source) represents approximately 30 GWth of installed capacity by the end of 2008, with direct use of other geothermal heat (ie, for heating the room, agricultural drying and other uses) reaching approximately 15 GWth. In 2008, at least 76 countries used direct geothermal energy in some form.
Second generation technology
Second generation technology has changed from the desire to dedicate a little to major economic sectors in countries such as Germany, Spain, the United States, and Japan. Many large industrial companies and financial institutions are involved and the challenge is to expand the market base for sustainable growth worldwide.
Solar heating
The solar heating system is a well-known second generation technology and generally consists of a solar thermal collector, a fluid system for transferring heat from a collector to a point of use, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage. This system can be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pool, or home and business. Heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as energy input for other uses such as refrigeration equipment.
In many warm climates, solar heating systems can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of the domestic hot water energy. In 2009, China had 27 million solar water heaters on the roof.
Photovoltaics
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, also called solar cells, convert light into electricity. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used to provide power supplies in remote areas, but from around 1995, industry efforts increasingly focused on the development of integrated photovoltaics buildings and photovoltaic power plants for applications connected to the network.
Many photovoltaic solar power plants have been built, especially in Europe. In July 2012, the world's largest photovoltaic (PV) power plant is Agua Caliente Solar Project (US, 247 MW), Charanka Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW), Perovo Solar Park 100 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark (Germany 91 MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany 84.7 MW), Montalto Photovoltaics Power Plant in Castro (Italy, 84.2 MW) Eggebek Solar Park (Germany 83.6 MW), Senftenberg Solarpark (Germany 82 MW), Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Okhotnykovo Solar Park (Russia, 80 MW), Lopburi Solar Farm (Thailand 73,16 MW), Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant (Italy, 72 MW), and Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 71.8 MW).
There are also many large factories under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm being built in Riverside County, California and Topaz Solar Farm built in San Luis Obispo County, California is a 550 MW solar park that will use thin-film solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar. The Blythe Solar Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County, California. California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) photovoltaic solar power plant, built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley. The 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is the first Solar photovoltaic project under construction in the Antelope Valley area of ​​the Western Mojave Desert, and will be completed by 2013. The Mesquite Solar project is a photovoltaic solar power plant built in Arlington, Maricopa County, Arizona, owned by Sempra Generation. Phase 1 will have a capacity of 150 megawatt plate plates.
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use an innovative tracking system that follows the daily path of the sun in the sky to generate more electricity than a conventional installed fixed system. There are no fuel costs or emissions during the operation of the power plant.
Wind power
Some of the second generation renewable energy, such as wind power, has high potential and has realized relatively low production costs. Wind power can be cheaper than nuclear power. Global wind power installations increased by 35,800 MW in 2010, bringing the total installed capacity to 194,400 MW, a 22.5% increase to 158,700 MW installed at the end of 2009. The 2010 increase represents an investment of EUR47.3 billion (US $ 65 billion) and for the first time more than half of all new wind power is added outside of traditional markets of Europe and North America, mainly driven, by the continuing boom in China which accounts for nearly half of all installations at 16,500 MW. China now has 42,300 MW of installed wind power. Wind power accounts for about 19% of electricity generated in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland. In Australia, the South Australian wind power, championed by Prime Minister Mike Rann (2002-2011), now comprises 26% of the country's power generation, creeping coal power. By the end of 2011 South Australia, with 7.2% of Australia's population, has 54% of the installed wind power capacity in the country. The share of wind power usage worldwide at the end of 2014 is 3.1%. These are some of the largest wind farms in the world:
In 2014, the wind industry in the United States is capable of producing more power at lower cost by using higher wind turbines with longer blades, capturing faster winds at higher altitudes. This has opened up new opportunities and in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above ground can now compete with conventional fossil fuels such as coal. Prices have dropped to about 4 cents per kilowatt-hour in some cases and utilities have increased the amount of wind energy in their portfolio, saying it is their cheapest option.
Solar thermal power plant
Solar thermal power plants include 354 megawatts (MW) of Solar Energy Generating Station in the United States, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar One (US, 64) MW), PS20 solar tower (Spain, 20 MW), and PS10 solar tower (Spain, 11 MW). 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in the Mojave Desert of California, is the world's largest thermal power plant project under construction. Many other plants are being built or planned, especially in Spain and the United States. In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated/combined-cycle solar/solar power plants in Egypt, Mexico and Morocco have been approved.
The modern form of bioenergy
Global ethanol production for transportation fuels tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to over 52 billion liters, while biodiesel increased more than tenfold from less than 1 billion to nearly 11 billion liters. Biofuels provide 1.8% of the world's transportation fuels and the latest forecasts show sustained high growth. Major producing countries for transport biofuels are the United States, Brazil and the EU.
Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving the production of ethanol fuels from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. As a result and the exploitation of domestic domestic oil sources, Brazil, which for many years had to import most of the oil needed for domestic consumption, has recently achieved self-sufficiency in liquid fuels.
Almost all gasoline sold in the United States is currently mixed with 10 percent ethanol, a mixture known as E10, and motor vehicle manufacturers already producing vehicles designed to run on a much higher ethanol blend. Ford, DaimlerChrysler and GM are one of the car companies that sell flexible fuel cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline to 85% ethanol (E85). The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels outside the agricultural countries where they are most popular to date. The 2005 Energy Policy Act, which calls for 7.5 billion billion US gallons (28,000,000 m 3 ) of biofuels to be used annually in 2012, will also help expand the market.
The growing ethanol and biodiesel industry provides jobs in plant construction, operation and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuel Association, "the ethanol industry created nearly 154,000 US jobs in 2005 alone, raising household income by $ 5.7 billion, contributing about $ 3.5 billion to tax revenues at local, state, and local levels federal".
Third-generation technology
Third-generation renewable energy technologies are under development and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technology, geothermal heat-dry-rock, and marine energy. Third generation technology has not been widely disclosed or has limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still rely on attracting sufficient attention and funding research and development.
New bioenergy technology
According to the International Energy Agency, cellulosic ethanol biorefineri can enable biofuels to play a much larger role in the future than organizations like the IEA previously thought. Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter which mainly consists of edible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste, and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Special energy plants, such as switchgrass, also promise a sustainable source of cellulose that can be produced in many areas.
Sea energy
Marine energy is all forms of renewable energy coming from the ocean including wave energy, tidal energy, river currents, ocean currents, offshore winds, salinity energy gradients and ocean thermal gradient energy.
The Rance Tidal Power Station (240 MW) is the world's first tidal power plant. This facility is located at the mouth of the River Rance, in Brittany, France. Opened on 26 November 1966, it is currently operated by ÃÆ'â € ° lectricitÃÆ'Â © de France, and is the world's largest tidal power plant, in terms of installed capacity.
First proposed over thirty years ago, the system for harvesting utility-scale electricity from ocean waves has recently gained momentum as a viable technology. The potential for this technology is considered promising, especially in beaches facing west with latitudes between 40 and 60 degrees:
In the UK, for example, the Carbon Trust has recently estimated an economical offshore resource level of 55 TWh per year, about 14% of current national demand. Across Europe, the technological resources that can be achieved have been estimated at least 280 TWh per year. In 2003, the US Institute for Power Research (EPRI) estimated decent resources in the United States at 255 TWh per year (6% of demand).
There are currently nine projects, completed or under development, offshore UK, USA, Spain and Australia to capitalize on the ups and downs of waves by Ocean Power Technologies. The current maximum power output is 1.5 MW (Reedsport, Oregon), with development going on for 100 MW (Coos Bay, Oregon).
Enhanced geothermal system
In 2008, the development of geothermal power is underway in more than 40 countries, partly due to the development of new technologies, such as improved Geothermal Systems. The development of a binary cycle power plant and improvements in drilling and extraction technologies can enable geothermal systems to increase in a much larger geographical range than the "traditional" geothermal system. The EGS Demonstration Project operates in the United States, Australia, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom.
Advanced solar concept
Outside the already established solar photovoltaic and solar thermal technology is a sophisticated solar concept such as a solar updraft tower or space-based solar power. These concepts have not (if ever) commercialized.
The updraft solar tower (SUT) is a renewable energy power plant to generate electricity from low temperature solar heat. Sunlight heats the air beneath the vast collation structure of the roof of a greenhouse around the central base of a very tall chimney tower. The resulting convection causes updraft of hot air in the tower by the chimney effect. This airflow drives a wind turbine placed in the updraft chimney or around the base of the chimney to generate electricity. Plans for improved scale demonstration models will enable significant power generation, and enable the development of other applications, such as water extraction or distillation, and agriculture or horticulture.
A more advanced version of a similarly themed technology is the Vortex (AVE) engine that aims to replace the large physical chimney with a whirlpool created by shorter and cheaper structures.
Solar power based space ( SBSP ) is the concept of collecting solar power in space (using "SPS", ie "solar satellites" or "satellite power systems") for use on earth. It's been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP will be different from current solar collection methods because the means used to collect energy will be on satellites orbiting rather than on Earth's surface. Some of the projected benefits of such a system are higher collection rates and longer collection periods due to the lack of widespread atmosphere and night time in space.
Renewable energy industry
Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 211 billion in 2010, up from $ 160 billion in 2009. The top countries for investment in 2010 were China, Germany, the United States, Italy, and Brazil. Sustainable growth for the renewable energy sector is expected and promotional policies help the industry cope with the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.
Company wind power
In 2010, Vestas (from Denmark) is the world's top wind turbine manufacturer in terms of market volume percentage, and Sinovel (from China) is in second place. Together Vestas and Sinovel delivered 10,228 MW of new wind power capacity in 2010, and their market share was 25.9 percent. GE Energy (USA) is in third place, followed by Goldwind, another Chinese supplier. Enercon Germany ranks fifth in the world, and followed in sixth place by Suzlon based in India.
Photovoltaic market trend
The solar PV market has grown over the last few years. According to the solar PV research company, PVinsights, worldwide solar module shipments in 2011 is around 25 GW, and the year of delivery from year growth is about 40%. The top 5 solar board players in 2011 took turns were Suntech, First Solar, Yingli, Trina, and Sungen. The top 5 solar module companies have 51.3% market share of solar modules, according to market intelligence reports PVinsights.
The PV industry has seen a modest fall in module prices since 2008. By the end of 2011, factory-gate prices for silicon-crystalline photovoltaic modules dropped below $ 1.00/W mark. Installation costs of $ 1.00/W, often considered in the PV industry as sign of grid parity attainment for PV. This reduction has taken many stakeholders, including industry analysts, with surprises, and the perceptions of today's solar economy often lagging behind reality. Some stakeholders still have the perspective that solar PV remains too expensive on an unsubsidized basis to compete with conventional generation options. But technological advances, improved manufacturing processes, and industrial rearrangements mean further price reductions are likely to occur in the coming years.
Hambatan non-teknis untuk penerimaan
Many energy markets, institutions, and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels. Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits, but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of large conventional power plants. Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given an accurate price signal about electricity consumption. Deliberate market distortions (such as subsidies), and unintentional market distortions (such as shared incentives) can work against renewable energy. Benjamin K. Sovacool argues that "some of the most stealthy, yet powerful, obstacles facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about culture and institutional than engineering and science ".
Barriers to the widespread commercialization of renewable energy technologies are primarily political, not technical, and there are many studies that have identified various "non-technical obstacles" for renewable energy use. These barriers are barriers that put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy. The main obstacles include:
- Difficulty dealing with established energy systems, which include the difficulty of introducing innovative energy systems, especially for distributed generations like photovoltaics, because of key technologies, power markets designed for centralized power generation, and market control by established operators. As the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change shows:
"National networks are typically adapted to centralized power generation operations and thus support their performance.Technology that is not easy to enter this network may be difficult to enter the market, even if the technology itself is commercially viable.This applies to distributed generations as most networks do not suitable for receiving electricity from many small sources.Large-scale renewable energy can also have problems if they are located in areas far from existing networks. "
- Lack of government policy support, including the lack of policies and regulations that support the spread of renewable energy technologies and the presence of policies and regulations that hinder the development of renewable energy and support the development of conventional energy. Examples include subsidies for fossil fuels, inadequate consumer-based renewable energy incentives, government guarantees for nuclear plant accidents, and complex zoning and licensing processes for renewable energy.
- Lack of information dissemination and consumer awareness.
- Higher capital costs for renewable energy technologies compared to conventional energy technologies.
- Inadequate financing options for renewable energy projects, including insufficient access to affordable finance for project developers, employers and consumers.
- Incomplete capital markets, which include failure to internalize all conventional energy costs (eg, air pollution effects, risks of supply disruptions) and failure to internalize all the benefits of renewable energy (eg cleaner air, energy security)./li>
- Inadequate employment skills and training, including the lack of sufficient scientific, technical and manufacturing skills required for renewable energy production; lack of reliable installation, maintenance and inspection services; and the failure of the education system to provide adequate training in new technologies.
- Lack of adequate code, standards, utility interconnections, and clean-measurement guidelines.
- Poor public perception of the aesthetics of renewable energy systems.
- Lack of stakeholder/community participation and cooperation in energy options and renewable energy projects.
With so many non-technical barriers, there is no "silver bullet" solution to drive the transition to renewable energy. So ideally there is a need for different types of policy instruments to complement and overcome different types of barriers.
A policy framework should be created that will equalize the playing field and improve the imbalance of traditional approaches associated with fossil fuels. The policy landscape should follow broad trends in the energy sector, and reflect certain social, economic and environmental priorities. Some resource-rich countries are struggling to stay away from fossil fuels and have failed so far to adopt the regulatory framework needed to develop renewable energies (eg Russia).
Public policy landscape
Public policy has a role to play in the commercialization of renewable energy because the free market system has some fundamental limitations. As Stern Review points out:
In liberalized energy markets, investors, operators, and consumers have to face all the costs of their decisions. But this does not happen in many economies or energy sectors. Many policies distort the market for existing fossil fuel technologies.
The International Solar Energy Society has stated that "the historical incentive for conventional energy resources continues even today for market bias by burying a lot of the real social costs of its use".
The fossil fuel energy system has differences in production costs, transmission, and end-use costs and characteristics of renewable energy systems, and new promotional policies are needed to ensure that renewable systems are expanding rapidly and widely as socially desirable.
Lester Brown stated that the market "does not include the indirect costs of providing goods or services into prices, it does not value the services of nature adequately, and it does not respect the threshold of sustainable yields of the natural system". It also benefits the short term in the long run, thus showing limited attention for future generations. Tax shifting and subsidies can help address this problem, although it is also problematic to combine the different international normative regimes that govern this issue.
Moving taxes
Tax shifts have been widely discussed and supported by economists. This involves decreasing income taxes while increasing levies on environmentally destructive activities, to create a more responsive market. For example, coal taxes that include increased health care costs associated with airborne air, acid damage costs, and climate distress costs will encourage investment in renewable technologies. Some Western European countries have already changed taxes in the process known there as environmental tax reforms.
In 2001, Sweden launched a new 10-year environmental tax shift designed to convert 30 billion kroner ($ 3.9 billion) income taxes to taxes on environmentally damaging activities. Other European countries with significant tax reform efforts are France, Italy, Norway, Spain and the UK. The two main economies of Asia, Japan and China, are considering carbon taxes.
Moving subsidy
Just as the need for tax shifting, there is also a need for subsidized shifts. Subsidies are not very bad as many technologies and industries emerge through government subsidy schemes. The Stern Review explains that of the 20 key innovations of the past 30 years, only one of 14 is fully funded by the private sector and nine is fully funded by the public. In terms of specific examples, the Internet is the result of publicly funded relationships between computers in government laboratories and research institutes. And the combination of federal tax cuts and strong state tax deductions in California helped create the modern wind power industry.
Lester Brown argues that "a world facing the prospect of climate change that disrupts the economy can no longer justify subsidies to expand coal and oil combustion.Sharing these subsidies for the development of environmentally friendly energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass and geothermal power are key to stabilizing the Earth's climate. "The International Solar Energy Society advocates" leveling the playing field "by improving the continuing injustice in public subsidies on energy technology and R & D, where fossil fuel and nuclear power receive the lion's share of financial support.
Some countries eliminate or reduce subsidies that disrupt the climate and Belgium, France and Japan have stopped all subsidies for coal. Germany reduces coal subsidies. Subsidies fell from $ 5.4 billion in 1989 to $ 2.8 billion in 2002, and in the process Germany reduced coal use by 46 percent. China cut its coal subsidy from $ 750 million in 1993 to $ 240 million in 1995 and has recently imposed a high coal sulfur tax. However, the United States has stepped up its support for the fossil and nuclear fuel industry.
In November 2011, the IEA report titled Spreading Renewable Energy 2011 says "subsidies in uncompetitive green energy technologies are justified to provide incentives to invest in technology with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA report does not agree with claims that renewable energy technologies are only via via expensive subsidies and unable to generate energy reliably to meet demand.
The imposition of fair and efficient subsidies for renewable energy and aims for sustainable development, however, requires coordination and regulation at a global level, since subsidies given in one country can easily disrupt industry and other party policies, thus underscoring the relevance of this problem in the Trade Organization World.
Renewable energy targets
Setting national renewable energy targets can be an important part of renewable energy policy and these targets are usually defined as percentages of primary energy and/or mixed power plants. For example, the EU has set an indicative renewable energy target of 12 percent of the total energy mix of the EU and 22 percent of electricity consumption in 2010. A national target for each EU Member State has also been set to meet the overall target. Other developed countries with established national or regional targets include Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Switzerland and some US states.
National targets are also an important component of renewable energy strategies in some developing countries. Developing countries with renewable energy targets include China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Brazil, Egypt, Mali, and South Africa. Targets set by many developing countries are quite modest when compared to targets in some industrialized countries.
Renewable energy targets in most countries are indicative and non-binding but they have helped government action and regulatory framework. The United Nations Environment Program has suggested that making legally binding renewable targets can be an important policy tool for achieving higher market penetration of renewable energy.
Flatten the game field
The IEA has identified three measures that will enable renewable energy and other clean energy technologies to "more effectively compete for private sector capital".
- "First, energy prices should accurately reflect the" true cost "of energy (eg through carbon pricing) so that the positive and negative impacts of energy production and consumption are fully taken into account." Example: New UK nuclear power plant costs $ 92.50/MWh, while offshore wind farms in the UK are supported by EUR74.2/MWh at Ã, £ 150 in 2011 falling to Ã, Â £ 130 per MWh by 2022. In Denmark, the price could be EUR84/MWh.
- "Second, inefficient fossil fuel subsidies should be removed, while ensuring that all citizens have access to affordable energy".
- "Third, the government should develop a policy framework that encourages private sector investment in low-carbon energy options".
Green stimulus program
In response to the global financial crisis in the late 2000s, the world's major governments set up a "green stimulus" program as one of their key policy instruments to support economic recovery. Some US $ 188 billion in green stimulus funding has been allocated for renewable energy and energy efficiency, which will be used primarily in 2010 and 2011.
Energy sector regulations
Public policy determines the extent to which renewable energy (RE) will be incorporated into a mix of developed or developing country generations. Energy sector regulators implement the policy - thus affecting the speed and pattern of the RE investment and connections to the power grid. Energy regulators often have the authority to implement a number of functions that have implications for the financial feasibility of renewable energy projects. These functions include issuing licenses, setting performance standards, monitoring regulated corporate performance, determining price levels and tariff structures, establishing a uniform account system, stakeholder dispute arbitration (such as interconnection cost allocations), conducting management audits, developing human resources agency. (Expertise), reporting sector and commission activities to government authorities, and coordinating decisions with other government agencies. Thus, regulators make decisions affecting the financial results associated with RE investments. In addition, sector regulators are in a position to advise governments on the full implications of a focus on climate change or energy security. Energy sector regulators are natural advocates for efficiency and cost-containment throughout the process of designing and implementing RE policies. Because the policy is not self-administered, energy sector regulators become key facilitators (or blockers) of renewable energy investments.
Energy transition in Germany
The Energiewende (Germany for energy transition ) is a transition by Germany to a low-carbon, environmentally friendly, reliable, and affordable energy supply. The new system will rely heavily on renewable energy (particularly wind, photovoltaic, and biomass) energy efficiency, and energy demand management. Most if not all existing coal-fired power stations need to be retired. The exit phase of the German nuclear reactor fleet, to be completed by 2022, is an important part of the program.
Legislative support for Energiewende was adopted at the end of 2010 and included 80-95% greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050 (relative to 1990) and renewable energy targets of 60% by 2050. Targets this is ambitious. The Berlin-based agency Agora Energiewende notes that "while the German approach is not unique around the world, the speed and scope of Energiewende is remarkable." The Energiewende is also looking for greater transparency in relation to the establishment of a national energy policy.
Germany has made significant progress in its GHG emission reduction targets, achieving a 27% decline between 1990 and 2014. However, Germany needs to maintain a reduction rate of about 3.5% of GHG emissions annually to achieve Energiewende destination, equal to the maximum historical value so far.
Germany spends EUR1.5 Ã, billion per year on energy research (number 2013) in an attempt to solve the technical and social problems raised by the transition. This includes a number of computer studies that have confirmed the same feasibility and cost (relative to business-as-usual and considering that carbon is cheap enough) from Energiewende .
This initiative goes beyond EU legislation and other national policies of other European countries. The policy objectives have been embraced by the German federal government and have resulted in a major expansion of renewable energy, particularly wind power. Germany's renewable energy sector has increased from about 5% in 1999 to 22.9% in 2012, exceeding the OECD average of 18% of renewable energy usage. Manufacturers have been guaranteed to have fixed feed rates for 20 years, guaranteeing fixed income. Energy cooperatives have been created, and efforts have been made to decentralize control and profit. Large energy companies have a disproportionate share of the renewable energy market. However, in some cases bad investment design has led to bankruptcy and low yield, and unrealistic promises have proven far from reality. Nuclear power plants are closed, and nine existing plants will close earlier than planned, by 2022.
One of the factors that hinder new efficient renewable energy work is the lack of accompanying investment in electricity infrastructure to bring power to the market. An estimated 8,300 km of electric lines must be built or upgraded. Different German countries have various attitudes towards the construction of new power lines. The industry has had freezing rates and increased costs of Energiewende have been passed on to consumers, who have increased electricity bills.
Voluntary market mechanism for renewable electricity
The voluntary market, also called the green power market, is driven by consumer preferences. The voluntary market allows consumers to choose to do more than necessary policy decisions and reduce the environmental impact of their electricity usage. Voluntary green power products should offer significant benefits and value to buyers to be successful. Benefits may include zero or reduced greenhouse gas emissions, other pollution reductions or other environmental improvements in power generation.
The driving factors behind voluntary green electricity in the EU are the liberalized electricity market and the RES Directive. According to the guidance, the EU Member State shall ensure that the origin of electricity generated from renewable energy can be guaranteed and therefore "assurance of origin" shall be issued (art. 15). Environmental organizations use the voluntary market to create new renewable energy and improve the sustainability of existing electricity production. In the US the primary tool for tracking and stimulating voluntary action is the Green-e program managed by the Resource Center. In Europe, the main voluntary tool used by NGOs to promote sustainable power production is the EKOenergy label.
Recent developments
A number of events in 2006 prompted renewable energy into the political agenda, including the US mid-term elections in November, confirming clean energy as a key issue. Also in 2006, Stern Review made a strong economic case for investing in low-carbon technologies now, and argues that economic growth need not conflict with cuts in energy consumption. According to the trend analysis of the United Nations Environment Program, climate change issues coupled with recent high oil prices and increased government support are fueling increased levels of investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency industries.
The capital investment flowing into renewable energy reached a record US $ 77 billion in 2007, with a continuing trend in 2008. The OECD still dominates, but there is now increased activity from companies in China, India and Brazil. The Chinese company was the second largest recipient of venture capital in 2006 after the United States. In the same year, India was the largest net buyer of overseas companies, especially in more established European markets.
New government spending, regulations and government policies help the industry cope with the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors. Notably, US President Barack Obama's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 included more than $ 70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and related transportation programs. This policy-stimulus combination represents the largest federal commitment in US history to renewable energy, advanced transportation, and energy conservation initiatives. Under this new rule, more utilities reinforce their clean energy programs. Clean Edge shows that the commercialization of clean energy will help countries around the world face the current economic downturn. The promising solar energy company, Solyndra, was involved in a political controversy involving US President Barack Obama's administration authority on a $ 535 million loan guarantee to Corporations in 2009 as part of a program to promote alternative energy growth. The company terminated all business activities, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and laid off most of its employees in early September 2011.
On January 24, 2012, State of the Union's speech, President Barack Obama reiterated his commitment to renewable energy. Obama said that he "will not stay away from the promise of clean energy." Obama called for a commitment by the Department of Defense to buy 1,000 MW of renewable energy. He also mentioned the longstanding commitment of the Ministry of Home Affairs to allow 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land by 2012.
In 2012, renewable energy plays a major role in the energy mix of many countries globally. Renewable energy becomes more economical in developing and developed countries. Prices for renewable energy technologies, especially wind and solar power, continue to decline, making renewable energy competitive with conventional energy sources. Without a level playing field, high market penetration of renewable energy still relies on a strong promotional policy. Fossil fuel subsidies, much higher than renewable energy, remain and need to be removed immediately.
UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said that "renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest countries to new levels of prosperity". In October 2011, it "announced the formation of a high-level group to revive support for greater energy access, energy efficiency and renewable energy usage.The group will be co-chaired by Kandeh Yumkella, chair of UN Energy and the director-general of the UN Industrial Development Organization, and Charles Holliday, chairman of Bank of America ".
The use of solar power and wind power worldwide continues to increase significantly in 2012. Solar power consumption increased by 58 percent, to 93 terawatt-hours (TWh). The use of wind power in 2012 increased by 18.1 percent, to 521.3 TWh. The installed capacity of solar and wind energy globally continues despite new investments in this technology declining during 2012. World investment in solar power in 2012 is $ 140.4 billion, a decline of 11 percent from 2011, and wind power investment down 10.1 percent, to $ 80.3 billion. But due to lower production costs for both technologies, the total installed capacity increased sharply. The decline in these investments, but installed capacity growth, could happen again in 2013. Analysts expect the market to triple by 2030. By 2015, investment in renewable energy exceeds fossils.
100% renewable energy
The incentive to use 100% of renewable energy for electricity, transportation, or even the total of primary energy supplies globally, has been motivated by global warming and other ecological and economic issues. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change says there are some fundamental technological constraints to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of the global energy demand. In reviewing the 164 latest scenarios of future renewable energy growth, the report notes that the majority of renewable resources are expected to supply more than 17% of total energy by 2030, and 27% by 2050; the highest projected projection of 43% is supplied by renewable energy by 2030 and 77% by 2050. The use of renewable energy has grown much faster than anticipated by advocates. At the national level, at least 30 countries around the world already have renewable energy that accounts for more than 20% of energy supply.
Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of the Atmospheric and Energy Program says generating all new energy with wind, solar power and hydropower by 2030 is viable and existing energy supply arrangements can be replaced by 2050 Barriers to implementing renewable energy plans are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson said that the cost of energy with wind, solar, water systems should be equal to current energy costs.
Similarly, in the United States, an independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to enable renewable electricity to play an important role in future power generation and thereby help address issues related to climate change, security energy, and energy cost escalation... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply much greater electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand. "
The most significant obstacles to large-scale renewable energy applications and low-carbon energy strategies are primarily political rather than technological. According to the 2013 report on Post-Carbon Preparation , which reviews many international studies, the main obstacles are: climate change rejection, fossil fuel lobbying, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and constraints finance.
Energy efficiency
Moving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy needed to deliver various goods or services is essential. The opportunities for demand-side improvement of energy equations are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.
A sustainable energy economy requires a commitment to renewable energy and efficiency. Renewable energy and energy efficiency are said to be the "twin pillars" of sustainable energy policy. The American Council for Energy Efficient Economy has explained that both resources must be developed to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions:
Efficiency is critical to slowing growth in energy demand so that an increase in clean energy supply can make a substantial reduction in the use of fossil fuels. If energy usage grows too fast, the development of renewable energy will catch the target receded. Likewise, unless net energy supply comes online quickly, slowing demand growth will only start to hit
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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